We recognize revenue when our performance obligation is satisfied. Our primary performance obligation (the distribution and sales of beverage products and food and snack products) is satisfied upon the shipment or delivery of products to our customers, which is also when control is transferred. Merchandising activities are performed after a customer obtains control of the product, are accounted for as fulfillment of our performance obligation to ship or deliver product to our customers and are recorded in selling, general and administrative expenses. Merchandising activities are immaterial in the context of our contracts.

The transfer of control of products to our customers is typically based on written sales terms that do not allow for a right of return. However, our policy for DSD and certain chilled products is to remove and replace damaged and out-of-date products from store shelves to ensure that consumers receive the product quality and freshness they expect. Similarly, our policy for certain warehouse-distributed products is to replace damaged and out-of-date products. As a result, we record reserves, based on estimates, for anticipated damaged and out-of-date products.

As a result of the implementation of the revenue recognition guidance adopted in the first quarter of 2018, which did not have a material impact on our accounting policies, we recorded an adjustment in the first quarter of 2018 of $137 million to beginning retained earnings to reflect marketplace spending that our customers and independent bottlers expect to be entitled to in line with revenue recognition. In addition, starting in 2018, we excluded from net revenue and cost of sales all sales, use, value-added and certain excise taxes assessed by governmental authorities on revenue-producing transactions. The impact of these taxes previously recognized in net revenue and cost of sales was approximately $75 million for the fiscal year ended December 30, 2017, with no impact on operating profit.

Our products are sold for cash or on credit terms. Our credit terms, which are established in accordance with local and industry practices, typically require payment within 30 days of delivery in the United States, and generally within 30 to 90 days internationally, and may allow discounts for early payment.

We estimate and reserve for our bad debt exposure based on our experience with past due accounts and collectibility, write-off history, the aging of accounts receivable and our analysis of customer data. Bad debt expense is classified within selling, general and administrative expenses on our income statement.

We are exposed to concentration of credit risk from our major customers, including Walmart. In 2019, sales to Walmart and its affiliates (including Sam’s) represented approximately 13% of our consolidated net revenue, including concentrate sales to our independent bottlers, which were used in finished goods sold by them to Walmart. We have not experienced credit issues with these customers.

We offer sales incentives and discounts through various programs to customers and consumers. Total marketplace spending includes sales incentives, discounts, advertising and other marketing activities. Sales incentives and discounts are primarily accounted for as a reduction of revenue and include payments to customers for performing activities on our behalf, such as payments for in-store displays, payments to gain distribution of new products, payments for shelf space and discounts to promote lower retail prices. Sales incentives and discounts also include support provided to our independent bottlers through funding of advertising and other marketing activities.

A number of our sales incentives, such as bottler funding to independent bottlers and customer volume rebates, are based on annual targets, and accruals are established during the year, as products are delivered, for the expected payout, which may occur after year end once reconciled and settled. These accruals are based on contract terms and our historical experience with similar programs and require management judgment with respect to estimating customer and consumer participation and performance levels. Differences between estimated expense and actual incentive costs are normally insignificant and are recognized in earnings in the period such differences are determined. In addition, certain advertising and marketing costs are also based on annual targets and recognized during the year as incurred.

The terms of most of our incentive arrangements do not exceed a year, and, therefore, do not require highly uncertain long-term estimates. Certain arrangements, such as fountain pouring rights, may extend beyond one year. Upfront payments to customers under these arrangements are recognized over the shorter of the economic or contractual life, primarily as a reduction of revenue, and the remaining balances of $272 million as of December 28, 2019 and $218 million as of December 29, 2018 are included in prepaid expenses and other current assets and other assets on our balance sheet.

For interim reporting, our policy is to allocate our forecasted full-year sales incentives for most of our programs to each of our interim reporting periods in the same year that benefits from the programs. The allocation methodology is based on our forecasted sales incentives for the full year and the proportion of each interim period’s actual gross revenue or volume, as applicable, to our forecasted annual gross revenue or volume, as applicable. Based on our review of the forecasts at each interim period, any changes in estimates and the related allocation of sales incentives are recognized beginning in the interim period that they are identified. In addition, we apply a similar allocation methodology for interim reporting purposes for certain advertising and other marketing activities. Our annual consolidated financial statements are not impacted by this interim allocation methodology.

Advertising and other marketing activities, reported as selling, general and administrative expenses, totaled $4.7 billion in 2019, $4.2 billion in 2018 and $4.1 billion in 2017, including advertising expenses of $3.0 billion in 2019, $2.6 billion in 2018 and $2.4 billion in 2017. Deferred advertising costs are not expensed until the year first used and consist of:

Distribution costs, including the costs of shipping and handling activities, which include certain merchandising activities, are reported as selling, general and administrative expenses. Shipping and handling expenses were $10.9 billion in 2019, $10.5 billion in 2018 and $9.9 billion in 2017.

We capitalize certain computer software and software development costs incurred in connection with developing or obtaining computer software for internal use when both the preliminary project stage is completed and it is probable that the software will be used as intended. Capitalized software costs include (1) external direct costs of materials and services utilized in developing or obtaining computer software, (2) compensation and related benefits for employees who are directly associated with the software projects and (3) interest costs incurred while developing internal-use computer software. Capitalized software costs are included in property, plant and equipment on our balance sheet and amortized on a straight-line basis when placed into service over the estimated useful lives of the software, which approximate five to 10 years. Software amortization totaled $166 million in 2019, $204 million in 2018 and $224 million in 2017. Net capitalized software and development costs were $572 million and $577 million as of December 28, 2019 and December 29, 2018, respectively.

We are subject to various claims and contingencies related to lawsuits, certain taxes and environmental matters, as well as commitments under contractual and other commercial obligations. We recognize liabilities for contingencies and commitments when a loss is probable and estimable.

We engage in a variety of research and development activities and continue to invest to accelerate growth and to drive innovation globally. Consumer research is excluded from research and development costs and included in other marketing costs. Research and development costs were $711 million, $680 million and $737 million in 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively, and are reported within selling, general and administrative expenses.

Indefinite-lived intangible assets and goodwill are not amortized and, as a result, are assessed for impairment at least annually, using either a qualitative or quantitative approach. We perform this annual assessment during our third quarter, or more frequently if circumstances indicate that the carrying value may not be recoverable. Where we use the qualitative assessment, first we determine if, based on qualitative factors, it is more likely than not that an impairment exists. Factors considered include macroeconomic, industry and competitive conditions, legal and regulatory environment, historical financial performance and significant changes in the brand or reporting unit. If the qualitative assessment indicates that it is more likely than not that an impairment exists, then a quantitative assessment is performed.

In the quantitative assessment for indefinite lived-intangible assets and goodwill, an assessment is performed to determine the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset and the reporting unit, respectively. Estimated fair value is determined using discounted cash flows and requires an analysis of several estimates including future cash flows or income consistent with management’s strategic business plans, annual sales growth rates, perpetuity growth assumptions and the selection of assumptions underlying a discount rate (weighted-average cost of capital) based on market data available at the time. Significant management judgment is necessary to estimate the impact of competitive operating, macroeconomic and other factors to estimate future levels of sales, operating profit or cash flows. All assumptions used in our impairment evaluations for indefinite-lived intangible assets and goodwill, such as forecasted growth rates (including perpetuity growth assumptions) and weighted-average cost of capital, are based on the best available market

Amortizable intangible assets are only evaluated for impairment upon a significant change in the operating or macroeconomic environment. If an evaluation of the undiscounted future cash flows indicates impairment, the asset is written down to its estimated fair value, which is based on its discounted future cash flows.

Translation of Financial Statements of Foreign Subsidiaries – Financial statements of foreign subsidiaries are translated into U.S. dollars using period-end exchange rates for assets and liabilities and weighted-average exchange rates for revenues and expenses. Adjustments resulting from translating net assets are reported as a separate component of accumulated other comprehensive loss within common shareholders’ equity as currency translation adjustment.