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INCOME TAXES
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2023
Income Tax Disclosure [Abstract]  
INCOME TAXES INCOME TAXES
Earnings before income taxes by geographical area consisted of the following (in millions of dollars):
For the Years Ended December 31,
202320222021
U.S.$2,211 $1,903 $1,267 
Foreign289 243 218 
Total
$2,500 $2,146 $1,485 


Income tax expense consisted of the following (in millions of dollars):
For the Years Ended December 31,
202320222021
Current income tax expense:
U.S. Federal
$431 $374 $221 
U.S. State
100 77 46 
Foreign
81 78 81 
Total current
612 529 348 
Deferred income tax (benefit) expense (15)4 23 
Total income tax expense$597 $533 $371 
The income tax effects of temporary differences that gave rise to the net deferred tax asset (liability) as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 were as follows (in millions of dollars):
As of December 31,
20232022
Deferred tax assets:
Accrued expenses
177 150 
U.S. and foreign loss carryforwards84 62 
Accrued employment-related benefits
51 51 
Tax credit carryforward
22 26 
Other
30 23 
Deferred tax assets
364 312 
           Less valuation allowance(93)(71)
Deferred tax assets – net of valuation allowance$271 $241 
Deferred tax liabilities:
Property, buildings, equipment and other capital assets(238)(212)
Intangibles
(58)(64)
Inventory(11)(18)
Other
(11)(11)
Deferred tax liabilities
(318)(305)
Net deferred tax liability$(47)$(64)
The net deferred tax asset (liability) is classified as follows:
Noncurrent assets
$10 $12 
Noncurrent liabilities (foreign)(57)(76)
Net deferred tax liability$(47)$(64)
As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, the Company had $335 million and $248 million, respectively, of gross loss carryforwards related to foreign operations and U.S. transactions. Some of the loss carryforwards may expire at various dates through 2043. The Company has recorded a valuation allowance, which represents a provision for uncertainty as to the realization of the tax benefits of these carryforwards and deferred tax assets that may not be realized.

The Company's valuation allowance changed as follows (in millions of dollars):
For the Years Ended December 31,
20232022
Balance at beginning of period$(71)$(70)
Increases primarily related to foreign NOLs(5)(10)
Releases primarily related to foreign NOLs1 1 
Foreign exchange rate changes(2)4 
Increase related to U.S. foreign tax credits3 1 
Increase related to capital loss carryforwards(19)— 
Other changes – net— 3 
Balance at end of period$(93)$(71)

A reconciliation of income tax expense with federal income taxes at the statutory rate follows (in millions of dollars):
For the Years Ended December 31,
202320222021
Federal income tax$525 $451 $312 
State income taxes – net of federal income tax benefit74 64 41 
Stock compensation(16)(5)(8)
Foreign rate difference31 26 26 
Change in valuation allowance(1)
6 7 7 
Other – net(23)(10)(7)
Income tax expense$597 $533 $371 
Effective tax rate23.9 %24.8 %25.0 %
(1) Net of changes in related tax attributes.

The decrease to the Company's effective tax rate for the year ended December 31, 2023 was primarily driven by increased tax benefits related to stock compensation.

Foreign Undistributed Earnings
Estimated gross undistributed earnings of foreign subsidiaries as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, totaled $544 million and $530 million, respectively. The Company considers these undistributed earnings permanently reinvested in its foreign operations and is not recording a deferred tax liability for any foreign withholding taxes on such amounts. If at some future date the Company ceases to be permanently reinvested in its foreign subsidiaries, the Company may be subject to foreign withholding and other taxes on these undistributed earnings and may need to record a deferred tax liability for any outside basis difference in its investments in its foreign subsidiaries.
Tax Uncertainties
The Company recognizes in the financial statements a provision for tax uncertainties, resulting from application of complex tax regulations in multiple tax jurisdictions.

The changes in the liability for tax uncertainties, excluding interest, are as follows (in millions of dollars):
For the Years Ended December 31,
202320222021
Balance at beginning of year$41 $38 $39 
Additions for tax positions related to the current year6 4 3 
Additions for tax positions of prior years1 2 — 
Reductions for tax positions of prior years(1)— (1)
Reductions due to statute lapse(3)(2)(3)
Settlements, audit payments, refunds – net(2)(1)— 
Balance at end of year$42 $41 $38 

The Company classifies the liability for tax uncertainties in deferred income taxes and tax uncertainties. Included in
this amount is $5 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, of tax positions for which the ultimate deductibility is highly certain but for which there is uncertainty about the timing of such deductibility. Any changes in the timing of deductibility of these items would not affect the annual effective tax rate but would accelerate the payment of cash to the taxing authorities to an earlier period. In 2023, 2022 and 2021, the changes to tax positions were primarily related to the impact of expiring statutes and current year state and local reserves.
The Company is regularly subject to examination of its federal income tax returns by the Internal Revenue Service. The statute of limitations expired for the Company's 2019 federal tax return while tax years 2020 through 2022 remain open. The Company is also subject to audit by state, local and foreign taxing authorities. Tax years 2012 through 2022 remain subject to state and local audits and 2012 through 2022 remain subject to foreign audits. The amount of liability associated with the Company's tax uncertainties may change within the next 12 months due to the pending audit activity, expiring statutes or tax payments. A reasonable estimate of such change cannot be made.