spro-10q_20200331.htm

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒

As of May 1, 2020, the registrant had 20,595,288 shares of common stock, $0.001 par value per share, outstanding.

This Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. We make such forward-looking statements pursuant to the safe harbor provisions of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and other federal securities laws. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q are forward-looking statements. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terminology such as “may,” “will,” “should,” “expects,” “intends,” “plans,” “anticipates,” “believes,” “estimates,” “predicts,” “potential,” “continue” or the negative of these terms or other comparable terminology. These forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, statements about:

Any forward-looking statements in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q reflect our current views with respect to future events or to our future financial performance and involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. Factors that may cause actual results to differ materially from current expectations include, among other things, those listed under Part II, Item 1A. “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q. Given these uncertainties, you should not place undue reliance on these forward-looking statements. Except as required by law, we assume no obligation to update or revise these forward-looking statements for any reason, even if new information becomes available in the future.

This Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q also contains estimates, projections and other information concerning our industry, our business, and the markets for certain diseases, including data regarding the estimated size of those markets, and the incidence and prevalence of certain medical conditions. Information that is based on estimates, forecasts, projections, market research or similar methodologies is inherently subject to uncertainties and actual events or circumstances may differ materially from events and circumstances reflected in this information. Unless otherwise expressly stated, we obtained this industry, business, market and other data from reports, research surveys, studies and similar data prepared by market research firms and other third parties, industry, medical and general publications, government data and similar sources.

	March 31,			December 31,
	2020			2019
Assets
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	64,363		$	29,730
Marketable securities	$	24,478		$	52,315
Other receivables	$	2,724		$	7,760
Tax incentive receivable, current	$	712		$	786
Prepaid expenses and other current assets	$	5,683		$	4,823
Total current assets	$	97,960		$	95,414
Property and equipment, net	$	2,163		$	2,273
Tax incentive receivable	$	262		$	21
Operating lease right of use assets	$	4,765		$	4,875
Other assets	$	4,744		$	3,520
Total assets	$	109,894		$	106,103

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable	$	8,951		$	4,147
Accrued expenses and other current liabilities	$	12,858		$	21,588
Operating lease liabilities	$	932		$	928
Total current liabilities	$	22,741		$	26,663
Non-current operating lease liabilities	$	4,521		$	4,617
Other long-term liabilities	$	205		$	249
Total liabilities	$	27,467		$	31,529
Commitments and contingencies (Note 9)
Stockholders' equity:
Preferred stock, $0.001 par value; 10,000,000 shares authorized, 5,007 shares issued and outstanding as of March 31, 2020 and 2,720 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2019	$	-		$	-
Common stock, $0.001 par value; 60,000,000 shares authorized as of March 31, 2020 and December 31, 2019; 20,328,340 shares issued and outstanding as of March 31, 2020 and 19,190,695 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2019		20		$	19
Additional paid-in capital		305,111		$	273,966
Accumulated deficit		(222,685	)	$	(199,427	)
Accumulated other comprehensive gain (loss)		(19	)	$	16
Total stockholders' equity		82,427		$	74,574
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity	$	109,894		$	106,103

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

	Three Months Ended March 31,
	2020			2019
Revenues:
Grant revenue	$	1,532		$	3,911
Collaboration revenue		169			3,807
Total revenues		1,701			7,718

Operating expenses:
Research and development		20,436			9,526
General and administrative		4,086			3,888
Total operating expenses		24,522			13,414
Loss from operations		(22,821	)		(5,696	)
Other income (expense):
Interest income		237			239
Other income (expense), net		(674	)		385
Total other income (expense), net		(437	)		624
Net loss	$	(23,258	)	$	(5,072	)

Net loss per share attributable to common stockholders, basic and diluted	$	(1.22	)	$	(0.29	)

Weighted average common shares outstanding, basic and diluted:		19,557,418			17,221,120

Comprehensive loss:
Net loss		(23,258	)		(5,072	)
Other comprehensive gain (loss):
Unrealized gain (loss) on marketable securities		(35	)		23
Reclassification adjustment for gains included in net loss		—			6
Net unrealized gains (losses) on securities		(35	)		29
Total comprehensive loss	$	(23,293	)	$	(5,043	)

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

	Three Months Ended March 31,
	2020			2019
Cash flows from operating activities:
Net loss	$	(23,258	)	$	(5,072	)
Adjustments to reconcile net loss to net cash used in operating activities:
Depreciation and amortization		189			184
Non-cash lease cost		110			—
Share-based compensation		1,110			933
Realized (gain) loss on investments		—			(1	)
Unrealized foreign currency transaction (gain) loss		453			(95	)
Accretion of discount on marketable securities		(53	)		(355	)
Changes in operating assets and liabilities:
Other receivables		5,036			(80	)
Prepaid expenses and other current assets		(860	)		(448	)
Tax incentive receivables		(233	)		(62	)
Other assets		(1,224	)		433
Accounts payable		4,824			(3,008	)
Accrued expenses and other current liabilities		(9,379	)		(3,364	)
Other long-term liabilities		(44	)		11
Net cash used in operating activities		(23,329	)		(10,924	)
Cash flows from investing activities:
Purchases of marketable securities		(3,995	)		(25,835	)
Proceeds from maturities of marketable securities		31,850			50,587
Purchases of property and equipment		(79	)		(81	)
Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities		27,776			24,671
Cash flows from financing activities:
Proceeds from the issuance of common stock, net of commissions		—			1,525
Proceeds from the issuance of common stock related to Rights Offering		9,416			—
Proceeds from issuance of Series C Preferred Shares		20,583			—
Payment of offering costs		(352	)		(16	)
Proceeds from stock option exercises		539			59
Net cash provided by financing activities		30,186			1,568
Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents		34,633			15,315
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at beginning of period		29,730			34,080
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at end of period	$	64,363		$	49,395

Supplemental disclosure of non-cash investing and financing activities:
Purchases of property and equipment included in accounts payable and accrued expenses	$	—		$	75
Offering costs in accounts payable and accruals	$	109		$	—
Series C issuance costs in accounts payable	$	41		$	—

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

	Series A, B and C								Additional					Accumulated			Spero Therapeutics, Inc.			Non-		Total
	Convertible Preferred Stock				Common Stock				Paid-in		Accumulated			Other Comprehensive			Stockholders'			controlling		Stockholders'
	Shares		Par Value		Shares		Par Value		Capital		Deficit			Income (Loss)			Equity			Interests		Equity
Balances at December 31, 2018		3,220		—		17,205,962		17		254,013		(138,502	)		(28	)		115,500			355		115,855
Issuance of common stock upon the exercise of stock options		—		—		10,014		—		59		—			—			59			—		59
Issuance of common stock, net of issuance costs		—		—		119,090		—		1,525		—			—			1,525			—		1,525
Share-based compensation expense		—		—		—		—		933		—			—			933			—		933
Unrealized loss on available-for-sale securities		—		—		—		—		—		—			29			29			—		29
Net loss		—		—		—		—		—		(5,072	)		—			(5,072	)		—		(5,072	)
Balances at March 31, 2019		3,220		—		17,335,066		17		256,530		(143,574	)		1			112,974			355		113,329


Balances at December 31, 2019		2,720		—		19,190,695		19		273,966		(199,427	)		16			74,574			—		74,574
Issuance of common stock upon the exercise of stock options		—		—		91,396		—		539		—			—			539			—		539
Issuance of common stock, net of offering costs of $462		—		—		1,046,249		1		8,954		—			—			8,955			—		8,955
Issuance of Series C preferred stock, net of offering costs of $41		2,287		—		—		—		19,993		—			—			19,993			—		19,993
Accretion of Series C preferred stock		—		—		—		—		549		—			—			549			—		549
Share-based compensation expense		—		—		—		—		1,110		—			—			1,110			—		1,110
Unrealized loss on available-for-sale securities		—		—		—		—		—		—			(35	)		(35	)		—		(35	)
Net loss		—		—		—		—		—		(23,258	)		—			(23,258	)		—		(23,258	)
Balances at March 31, 2020		5,007		—		20,328,340		20		305,111		(222,685	)		(19	)		82,427			—		82,427

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

Spero Therapeutics, Inc., together with its consolidated subsidiaries (the “Company” or “Spero”), is a multi-asset, clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on identifying, developing and commercializing treatments in high unmet need areas involving multi-drug resistant, or MDR, bacterial infections and rare diseases. The Company’s most advanced product candidate, tebipenem pivoxil hydrobromide or tebipenem HBr (previously SPR994), is designed to be the first oral carbapenem-class antibiotic for use in adults to treat MDR Gram-negative infections. Treatment with effective orally administrable antibiotics may prevent hospitalizations for serious infections and enable earlier, more convenient and cost-effective treatment of patients after hospitalization. The Company is also developing SPR720, a novel oral antibiotic designed for the treatment a rare, orphan disease caused by pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections, or NTM disease. In addition, the Company has a platform technology known as its Potentiator Platform, that includes an IV-administered product candidate, SPR206, being developed to treat MDR Gram-negative infections in the hospital. The Company believes that our novel product candidates, if successfully developed and approved, would have a meaningful patient impact and significant commercial applications for the treatment of MDR infections in both the community and hospital settings.

The Company is subject to risks and uncertainties common to companies in the biotechnology industry, including, but not limited to, development by competitors of new technological innovations, dependence on key personnel, protection of proprietary technology, compliance with government regulations, risks of failure or unsatisfactory results of nonclinical studies and clinical trials, the need to obtain marketing approval for its product candidates, the need to successfully commercialize and gain market acceptance of its product candidates and the ability to secure additional capital to fund operations. The Company’s product candidates will require additional preclinical and clinical testing and regulatory approval prior to commercialization. These efforts require significant amounts of additional capital, adequate personnel and infrastructure and extensive compliance-reporting capabilities. Even if the Company’s product development efforts are successful, it is uncertain when, if ever, the Company will realize significant revenue from product sales. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has resulted, and is likely to continue to result, in significant national and global economic disruption and may adversely affect our business. Based on the Company’s current assessment, the Company does not expect any material impact on its existing development timeline and its liquidity due to the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 virus, nor has it incurred impairment of any assets as a result of COVID-19. However, the Company is actively monitoring this situation and the possible effects on its business, results of operations and financial condition, including expenses, manufacturing, clinical trials, research and development costs and employee-related amounts.

The accompanying consolidated financial statements of the Company have been prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) and include the accounts of the Company and its consolidated subsidiaries. All intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

Since inception, the Company has funded its operations with proceeds from sales of preferred units (including bridge units, which converted into preferred units), payments received in connection with a concluded collaboration agreement, funding from government contracts, a licensing agreement and through the sale of the Company’s common and preferred stock. The Company has incurred recurring losses since inception, including net losses attributable to Spero Therapeutics, Inc. of $23.3 million and $5.1 million for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively. In addition, as of March 31, 2020, the Company had an accumulated deficit of $222.7 million. The Company expects to continue to generate operating losses for the foreseeable future.

In accordance with Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2014-15, Disclosure of Uncertainties about an Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern (Subtopic 205-40), the Company has evaluated whether there are conditions and events, considered in the aggregate, that raise substantial doubt about the Company’s ability to continue as a going concern within one year after the date that these consolidated financial statements are issued. Based on the Company’s current operating plan and existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities, the Company has determined that there is substantial doubt regarding its ability to continue as a going concern. The Company will require additional funding to fund the development of its product candidates through regulatory approval and commercialization, and to support its continued operations. The Company will seek additional funding through public or private financings, debt financing, collaboration agreements or government grants. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in ongoing volatility in financial markets. If our access to capital is restricted or associated borrowing costs increase as a result of developments in financial markets, including relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, our operations and financial condition could be adversely impacted. There is no assurance that the Company will be successful in obtaining sufficient funding on acceptable terms, if at all, and it could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate some or all of its research and development programs, product portfolio expansion or commercialization efforts, which could materially adversely affect its business prospects or its ability to continue operations.

The accompanying consolidated financial statements do not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome of this uncertainty. Accordingly, the consolidated financial statements have been prepared on a basis that assumes the Company will continue as a going concern and which contemplates the realization of assets and satisfaction of liabilities and commitments in the ordinary course of business.

The consolidated balance sheet at December 31, 2019 was derived from audited financial statements, but does not include all disclosures required by GAAP. The accompanying unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements as of March 31, 2020, and for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, have been prepared by the Company pursuant to the rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) for interim financial statements. Certain information and footnote disclosures normally included in financial statements prepared in accordance with GAAP have been condensed or omitted pursuant to such rules and regulations. These consolidated financial statements should be read in conjunction with the Company’s audited consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto for the year ended December 31, 2019, included in the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2019, on file with the SEC. In the opinion of management, all adjustments, consisting only of normal recurring adjustments necessary for a fair statement of the Company’s financial position as of March 31, 2020, and results of operations for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, and cash flows for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019 have been made. The results of operations for the three months ended March 31, 2020 are not necessarily indicative of the results of operations that may be expected for the year ending December 31, 2020.

The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of expenses during the reporting periods. Significant estimates and assumptions reflected in these consolidated financial statements include, but are not limited to, revenue recognition, the accrual for clinical trial costs and other research and development expenses, and the valuation of share-based awards. The full extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic will directly or indirectly impact our business, results of operations and financial condition, including expenses, manufacturing, clinical trials, research and development costs and employee-related amounts, will depend on future developments that are highly uncertain, including as a result of new information that may emerge concerning COVID-19 and the actions taken to contain it or treat COVID-19, as well as the economic impact on local, regional, national and international customers and markets. The Company has contemplated the impact of COVID-19 within its financial statements and is not aware of any specific event or circumstance that would require the Company to update estimates, judgments or revise the carrying value of any assets or liabilities. There may be changes to those estimates in future periods. On an ongoing basis, management evaluates its estimates, as there are changes in circumstances, facts and experience. Actual results may differ from those estimates or assumptions.

The Company manages its operations as a single segment for the purposes of assessing performance and making operating decisions. The Company’s singular focus is on identifying, developing and commercializing novel treatments for MDR bacterial infections. All of the Company’s tangible assets are held in the United States.

The Company consolidates entities in which it has a controlling financial interest. The Company evaluates each of its subsidiaries to determine whether the entity represents a variable interest entity (“VIE”), for which consolidation should be evaluated under the VIE model, or, alternatively, if the entity is a voting interest entity, for which consolidation should be evaluated using the voting interest model. The Company has concluded that none of its subsidiaries is a VIE and has consolidated each subsidiary under the voting interest model because it has majority voting control of each subsidiary.

Ownership interests in the Company’s subsidiaries that are held by entities other than the Company are reported as non-controlling interests in the consolidated balance sheets. Losses attributed to non-controlling interests and to the Company are reported separately in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.

In November 2019, the Company repurchased 100% of the minority investor’s outstanding shares in Spero Gyrase and as a result, as of December 31, 2019, the Company no longer reported a non-controlling interest in Spero Gyrase.

Financial instruments that potentially expose the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist primarily of cash and cash equivalents. The Company maintains most of its cash and cash equivalents at one accredited financial institution. The Company does not believe that it is subject to unusual credit risk beyond the normal credit risk associated with commercial banking relationships.

The Company is dependent on third-party manufacturers to supply products for research and development activities in its programs. In particular, the Company relies and expects to continue to rely on a small number of manufacturers to supply it with its requirements for the active pharmaceutical ingredients and formulated drugs related to these programs. These programs could be adversely affected by a significant interruption in the supply of active pharmaceutical ingredients and formulated drugs. As of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019, the Company had no off-balance sheet risk such as foreign exchange contracts, option contracts, or other hedging arrangements.

The Company capitalizes certain legal, professional accounting and other third-party fees that are directly associated with in-process equity financings as deferred offering costs until such financings are consummated. After consummation of the equity financing, these costs are recorded in stockholders’ deficit as a reduction of additional paid-in capital generated as a result of the offering. Should the planned equity financing be abandoned, the deferred offering costs will be expensed immediately as a charge to operating expenses in the consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss. As of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019, the Company had no capitalized deferred offering costs.

The Company considers all highly liquid investments with original maturities of three months or less at the date of purchase to be cash equivalents. Cash and cash equivalents include cash held in banks and money market instruments.

Marketable securities consist of investments with original maturities greater than 90 days. The Company considers its portfolio of investments to be available-for-sale. Accordingly, these investments are recorded at fair value, which is based on quoted market prices. Investments with maturities beyond one year are generally classified as short term, based on their highly liquid nature and because such marketable securities represent the investment of cash that is available for current operations. Unrealized gains and losses are reported as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) in stockholders’ equity. Realized gains and losses and declines in value are included as a component of other income (expense), net based on the specific identification method. The Company evaluates debt securities with an unrealized loss to determine whether there may be a credit impairment. The Company also assesses its intent to sell the security and whether it is more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell the security prior to recovery of its amortized cost. Any credit impairments are recorded through an allowance account.

Property and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation and amortization. Depreciation and amortization expense are recognized using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life of each asset as follows:

Costs for capital assets not yet placed into service are capitalized as construction in progress and are depreciated in accordance with the above guidelines once placed into service. Upon retirement or sale, the cost of assets disposed of and the related accumulated depreciation and amortization are removed from the accounts and any resulting gain or loss is included in loss from operations. Expenditures for repairs and maintenance are charged to expense as incurred. The Company periodically evaluates whether events and circumstances have occurred that may warrant revision of the estimated useful life of property and equipment.

Effective January 1, 2019, the Company adopted ASC Topic 842, Leases (“ASC 842”), using the modified retrospective approach and utilizing the effective date as its date of initial application, for which prior periods are presented in accordance with the previous guidance in ASC 840, Leases (“ASC 840”).

At the inception of an arrangement, the Company determines whether the arrangement is or contains a lease based on the unique facts and circumstances present in the arrangement. Leases with a term greater than one year are recognized on the balance sheet as right-of-use assets and short-term and long-term lease liabilities, as applicable. The Company has elected not to recognize on the balance sheet leases with terms of one year or less. As of March 31, 2020, the Company had no short-term leases with terms of one year or less. Options to renew a lease are not included in the Company’s initial lease term assessment unless there is reasonable certainty that the Company will renew. The Company monitors its plans to renew its material leases on a quarterly basis.

Operating lease liabilities and their corresponding right-of-use assets are recorded based on the present value of lease payments over the expected remaining lease term. Certain adjustments to the right-of-use asset may be required for items such as incentives received. The interest rate implicit in lease contracts is typically not readily determinable. As a result, the Company utilizes its incremental borrowing rate (“IBR”), which reflects the fixed rate at which the Company could borrow on a collateralized basis the amount of the lease payments in the same currency, for a similar term, and in a similar economic environment. Since the Company does not have any debt and has not been rated by any major credit rating agency, the Company’s IBR was estimated by developing a synthetic credit rating for the Company. In transitioning to ASC 842, the Company utilized the remaining lease term of its leases in determining the appropriate incremental borrowing rates.

In accordance with ASC 842, components of a lease should be split into three categories: lease components (e.g., land, building, etc.), non-lease components (e.g., common area maintenance, consumables, etc.), and non-components (e.g., property taxes, insurance, etc.). The fixed and in-substance fixed contract consideration (including any consideration related to non-components) must be allocated based on the respective relative fair values to the lease components and non-lease components.

Although separation of lease and non-lease components is required, certain practical expedients are available. Entities may elect the practical expedient to not separate lease and non-lease components. In making this election, entities would account for each lease component and the related non-lease component together as a single component. For new and amended leases beginning in 2019 and after, the Company has elected to account for the lease and non-lease components together as a single lease component.

Long-lived assets consist of property and equipment. Long-lived assets to be held and used are tested for recoverability whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of the assets may not be fully recoverable. Factors that the Company considers in deciding when to perform an impairment review include significant underperformance of the business in relation to expectations, significant negative industry or economic trends and significant changes or planned changes in the use of the assets. If an impairment review is performed to evaluate a long-lived asset group for recoverability, the Company compares forecasts of undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the long-lived asset group to its carrying value. An impairment loss would be recognized when estimated undiscounted future cash flows expected to result from the use of an asset group are less than its carrying amount. The impairment loss would be based on the excess of the carrying value of the impaired asset group over its fair value, determined based on discounted cash flows.

Certain assets and liabilities are carried at fair value under GAAP. Fair value is defined as the exchange price that would be received for an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. Valuation techniques used to measure fair value must maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. Financial assets and liabilities carried at fair value are to be classified and disclosed in one of the following three levels of the fair value hierarchy, of which the first two are considered observable and the last is considered unobservable:

The Company’s cash equivalents and derivative liabilities are carried at fair value, determined according to the fair value hierarchy described above (see Note 3). The carrying values of the Company’s accounts payable and accrued expenses approximate their fair values due to the short-term nature of these liabilities.

For collaboration agreements with a third party, to determine the appropriate statement of operations classification of the recognized funding, the Company first assesses whether the collaboration arrangement is within the scope of the accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements. If it is, the Company evaluates the collaborative arrangement for proper classification in the statement of operations based on the nature of the underlying activity and the Company assesses the payments to and from the collaborative partner. If the payments to and from the collaborative partner are not within the scope of other authoritative accounting guidance, the Company bases the statement of operations classification for the payments received on a reasonable, rational analogy to authoritative accounting guidance, applied in a consistent manner. Conversely, if the collaboration arrangement is not within the scope of accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements, the Company assesses whether the collaboration arrangement represents a vendor/customer relationship. If the collaborative arrangement does not represent a vendor/customer relationship, the Company then classifies the funding payments received in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss as a reduction of the related expense that is incurred.

In June 2019, the Company entered into a collaboration agreement with the Bill and Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute (the “Gates MRI”) and concluded that the agreement is within the scope of the accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements (see Note 11). Due to the cost-funded nature of the payments and the Company’s assessment that it does not have a vendor/customer relationship with the Gates MRI, the Company recognizes the funding received under the agreement as a reduction to the research and development expenses incurred, as the related expenses are incurred.

For available government tax incentives that the Company may earn without regard to the existence of taxable income and that require the Company to forego tax deductions or the use of future tax credits and net operating loss carryforwards, the Company classifies the funding recognized as a reduction of the related qualifying research and development expenses incurred.

Since the fourth quarter of 2016, the Company’s operating subsidiary in Australia has met the eligibility requirements to receive a tax incentive for qualifying research and development activities (see Note 12). The Company recognizes these incentives as a reduction of research and development expenses in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss in the same period that the related qualifying expenses are incurred. Reductions of research and development expense recognized upon incurring qualifying expenses in advance of receipt of tax incentive payments are recorded in the consolidated balance sheet as tax incentive receivables.

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred. Research and development expenses are comprised of costs incurred in performing research and development activities, including personnel salaries, share-based compensation and benefits, allocated facilities costs, depreciation, manufacturing expenses, costs related to the Company’s government contract and grant arrangements, and external costs of outside vendors engaged to conduct preclinical development activities, clinical trials as well as the cost of licensing technology. Upfront payments and milestone payments made for the licensing of technology are expensed as research and development in the period in which they are incurred. Advance payments for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses. The prepaid amounts are expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed.

The Company has entered into various research and development contracts with clinical research organizations and other companies both inside and outside of the United States. These agreements are generally cancelable, and related payments are recorded as research and development expenses as incurred. There may be instances in which payments made to these vendors exceed the level of service provided and will result in a prepayment of the expense. The Company records accruals for estimated ongoing research and clinical trial costs based on the services received and efforts expended pursuant to multiple contracts with these vendors. When evaluating the adequacy of the accrued liabilities, the Company analyzes the progress of the studies or trials, including the phase or completion of events, invoices received and contracted costs. Significant judgments and estimates are made in determining the accrued balances at the end of any reporting period. Actual results could differ from the Company’s estimates. The Company’s historical accrual estimates have not been materially different from the actual costs.

All patent-related costs incurred in connection with filing and prosecuting patent applications are expensed as incurred due to the uncertainty about the recovery of the expenditure. Amounts incurred are classified as general and administrative expenses.

The Company measures all share-based awards granted to employees and directors based on the fair value on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. Compensation expense of those awards is recognized over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. The Company has historically issued awards with only service-based vesting conditions. In March 2019, the Company also granted awards with vesting tied to certain performance conditions. The Company records the expense for awards with service-based conditions using the straight-line method over the requisite service period, net of any actual forfeitures. The Company classifies share-based compensation expense in its consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss in the same manner in which the award recipient’s payroll costs are classified or in which the award recipient’s service payments are classified.

Comprehensive loss includes net loss as well as other changes in stockholders’ equity that result from transactions and economic events other than those with shareholders. For the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, these changes related to unrealized gains and losses on the Company’s available-for-sale marketable securities.

The Company follows the two-class method when computing net income (loss) per share, as the Company has issued shares that meet the definition of participating securities. The two-class method determines net income (loss) per share for each class of common and participating securities according to dividends declared or accumulated and participation rights in undistributed earnings. The two-class method requires income available to common stockholders for the period to be allocated between common and participating securities based upon their respective rights to receive dividends as if all income for the period had been distributed. Net income (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders is calculated based on net income (loss) attributable to Spero Therapeutics, Inc. and excludes net income (loss) attributable to non-controlling interests.

Basic net income (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by dividing the net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders by the weighted average number of shares of common stock outstanding for the period. Diluted net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders is computed by adjusting net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders to reallocate undistributed earnings based on the potential impact of dilutive securities. Diluted net income (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by dividing the diluted net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the period, including potential dilutive common shares assuming the dilutive effect of common stock equivalents.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic Security Act (CARES Act) was signed into law in March 2020. The CARES Act lifts certain deduction limitations originally imposed by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (2017 Tax Act). Corporate taxpayers may carryback net operating losses (NOLs) originating during 2018 through 2020 for up to five years, which was not previously allowed under the 2017 Tax Act. The CARES Act also eliminates the 80% of taxable income limitations by allowing corporate entities to fully utilize NOL carryforwards to offset taxable income in 2018, 2019 or 2020. Taxpayers may generally deduct interest up to the sum of 50% of adjusted taxable income plus business interest income (30% limit under the 2017 Tax Act) for tax years beginning January 1, 2019 and 2020. The CARES Act allows taxpayers with alternative minimum tax credits to claim a refund in 2020 for the entire amount of the credits instead of recovering the credits through refunds over a period of years, as originally enacted by the 2017 Tax Act.

In addition, the CARES Act raises the corporate charitable deduction limit to 25% of taxable income and makes qualified improvement property generally eligible for 15-year cost-recovery and 100% bonus depreciation. The enactment of the CARES Act did not result in any material adjustments to our income tax provision for the three months ended March 31, 2020, or to our net deferred tax assets as of March 31, 2020.

In June 2016, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standard Update (“ASU”) No 2016-13, Financial Instruments – Credit Losses (Topic 326). The Accounting Standards Codification 326, Financial Instruments- Credit Losses (“ASC 326”) requires a financial asset measured at amortized cost basis to be presented at the net amount expected to be collected. We adopted the updated, effective January 1, 2020. Under ASU 2016-13, the Company is required to use a current expected credit loss (“CECL”) model that immediately recognizes an estimate of credit losses that are expected to occur over the life of the financial instruments that are in the scope of the update, including trade receivables. The updated guidance also amends the previous other-than-temporary impairment model for available-for-sale debt securities by requiring the recognition of impairments related to credit losses through an allowance account and limits the amount of credit loss to the difference between a security’s amortized cost basis and its fair value. In addition, the length of time a security has been in an unrealized loss position no longer impacts the determination of whether a credit loss exists. The Company adopted the guidance on January 1, 2020 with no impact. For available-for-sale securities, the updated guidance was applied prospectively. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Company’s available-for-sale securities was insignificant.

In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-15, Intangibles—Goodwill and Other—Internal-Use Software (Subtopic 350-40): Customer’s Accounting for Implementation Costs Incurred in a Cloud Computing Arrangement That Is a Service Contract (a consensus of the FASB Emerging Issues Task Force) (“ASU 2018-15”). The amendments in ASU 2018-15 align the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs incurred in a hosting arrangement that is a service contract with the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs incurred to develop or obtain internal-use software (and hosting arrangements that include an internal-use software license). The Company adopted this standard as of January 1, 2020, on a prospective basis. The adoption did not have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-13, Fair Value Measurement (Topic 820): Disclosure Framework - Changes to the Disclosure Requirements for Fair Value Measurement. This standard modifies certain disclosure requirements on fair value measurements. This standard became effective for us on January 1, 2020, and did not have a material impact on our disclosures. For the new disclosures regarding our Level 3 instruments, please read Note 3, Fair Value Measurements, to these condensed consolidated financial statements.

In November 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-18, Collaborative Arrangements (Topic 808): Clarifying the Interaction between Topic 808 and Topic 606. This standard makes targeted improvements for collaborative arrangements as follows:

This standard became effective for us on January 1, 2020, and did not have a material impact on our condensed consolidated financial statements and related disclosures.

In December 2019, the FASB issued ASU 2019-12, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Simplifying the Accounting for Income Taxes, amended guidance on the accounting and reporting of income taxes. The guidance is intended to simplify the accounting for income taxes by removing exceptions related to certain intraperiod tax allocations and deferred tax liabilities; clarifying guidance primarily related to evaluating the step-up tax basis for goodwill in a business combination; and reflecting enacted changes in tax laws or rates in the annual effective tax rate. The amended guidance is effective for interim and annual periods in 2021. Early adoption is permitted. The application of the amendments in the new guidance are to be applied on a retrospective basis, on a modified retrospective basis through a cumulative-effect adjustment to retained earnings or prospectively, depending on the amendment. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of adoption on its consolidated financial statements.

The following tables present information about the Company’s assets and liabilities that are measured at fair value on a recurring basis (in thousands):

	Fair Value Measurements at March 31, 2020 Using:
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets:
Cash equivalents:
Money market funds	$	—	$	61,985	$	—	$	61,985
Total cash equivalents		—		61,985		—		61,985
Marketable securities:
U.S. government securities		—		—		—		—
Corporate bonds		—		13,513		—		13,513
Commercial paper		—		10,965		—		10,965
Total marketable securities		—		24,478		—		24,478
Total cash equivalents and marketable securities	$	—	$	86,463	$	—	$	86,463

	Fair Value Measurements at December 31, 2019 Using:
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets:
Cash equivalents:
Money market funds	$	—	$	26,751	$	—	$	26,751
Total cash equivalents		—		26,751		—		26,751
Marketable securities:
U.S. government securities		—		16,797		—		16,797
Corporate bonds		—		14,060		—		14,060
Commercial paper		—		21,458		—		21,458
Total marketable securities		—		52,315		—		52,315
Total cash equivalents and marketable securities	$	—	$	79,066	$	—	$	79,066

Excluded from the tables above is cash of $2.4 million and $3.0 million as of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019, respectively. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, there were no transfers between Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 categories.

The Company’s marketable securities are classified as Level 2 assets under the fair value hierarchy as these assets were primarily determined from independent pricing sources, which generally derive security prices from recently reported trades for identical or similar securities. The Company evaluated debt securities with unrealized losses for any expected credit losses and determined unrealized losses on these securities were related to non-credit factors. Additionally, the Company currently does not intend to and is not required to sell these investments prior to an anticipated recovery in value.

The following table summarizes the gross unrealized gains and losses of the Company’s marketable securities as of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019 (in thousands):

As of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019, all of the Company’s marketable securities had remaining contractual maturity dates of one year or less from the respective consolidated balance sheet date.

In connection with the issuance of a non-controlling interest in Spero Gyrase, Inc., the Company granted anti-dilution rights to the minority investor. The Company classified the anti-dilution rights as a derivative liability on its consolidated balance sheet because they were freestanding instruments that represent a conditional obligation to issue a variable number of shares. The Company remeasured the derivative liability associated with the anti-dilution rights to fair value at each reporting date, and recognized changes in the fair value of the derivative liability as a component of other income (expense) in the consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss. The fair value of these derivative liabilities was determined using a discounted cash flow model.

As of March 31, 2019, the Company’s fair value of the anti-dilution rights of $0.2 million related only to the anti-dilution rights held by the minority investor in Spero Gyrase, Inc.

In November 2019, the Company repurchased 100% of the minority investor’s outstanding shares in Spero Gyrase, Inc. at a price per share of $0.001. As a result, as of March 31, 2020, there are no anti-dilution rights outstanding.

In August 2015, the Company entered into an operating lease agreement with U.S. REIF Central Plaza Massachusetts, LLC (the “Landlord”) with respect to its corporate headquarters located at 675 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts (the “Original Lease”). The term of the Original Lease commenced in January 2016 and was scheduled to expire in December 2020. Under the terms of the Original Lease, the Company provided a security deposit of $0.2 million to the Landlord, which is included in long-term assets in the accompanying condensed consolidated balance sheets. The Original Lease provided for annual rent escalations as well as tenant incentives in the amount of $0.7 million, of which $0.3 million would be reimbursed to the Landlord over the initial term of the Original Lease.

On January 17, 2018, the Company entered into an amendment to the Original Lease (the “Amendment”). The Amendment makes certain modifications to the Original Lease, including the addition of approximately 7,800 square feet of office space in the same building (the “Expansion Premises”) and an extension of the expiration date of the Original Lease to seven years or December 2025. The Amendment also provided for $0.4 million from the Landlord for leasehold improvements on the Expansion Premises.

On December 16, 2019, the Company entered into a second amendment to the Original Lease and the Amendment (the “Second Amendment”). The Second Amendment made certain modifications, including (i) the addition of approximately 7,800 square feet of office space in the same building with a term beginning in June 2020 (the “Second Expansion Premises”), and (ii) an extension of the expiration date of all existing leases through May 2027.

Under the Second Amendment, the Company has two consecutive options to extend the Lease Term for an additional period of five years (the “Option Terms”), subject to certain conditions, upon notice to the Landlord. These renewal options were not included in the calculation of the operating lease assets and operating lease liabilities, as the renewal is not reasonably certain. The Second Amendment provides for annual base rent for the Second Expansion Premises of approximately $0.6 million in the first year of the Lease Term, which increases on an annual basis to approximately $0.7 million in the final year of the Lease Term, and annual base rent during the Option Terms to be calculated based on the Landlord’s good faith determination of 100% of the fair market rate for such Option Terms. The Company is also obligated to pay the Landlord certain costs, taxes and operating expenses, subject to certain exclusions. The Amendment also provides for $0.4 million from the Landlord for leasehold improvements on the Expansion Premises.

In July 2016, the Company entered into an agreement to lease laboratory space through November 30, 2019 from a sublessor, which required annual lease payments of $0.3 million, subject to certain escalations. This lease was terminated in August 2019.

For the three months ended March 31, 2020, the components of operating lease expense were as follows (in thousands):

Supplemental cash flow information related to the Company’s operating leases for the three months ended March 31, 2020, was as follows (in thousands):

As part of our agreement with Meiji Seika Pharma Co. Ltd. (“Meiji”), the Company paid Meiji approximately $1.6 million during the three months ended December 31, 2018, related to fixed assets which will be used in manufacturing related activities at Meiji. The Company determined this equipment to be an embedded finance lease and has been capitalized as property and equipment in the condensed consolidated balance sheet as of March 31, 2020 and December 31, 2019. As this equipment was fully paid in 2018, there is no corresponding lease liability as of March 31, 2020.

The following table presents the lease balances within the condensed consolidated balance sheet, weighted average remaining lease term, and the weighted average discount rates related to the Company’s operating and finance leases as of March 31, 2020 (in thousands, except for the weighted average remaining lease term and the weighted average discount rate):

The following table presents the maturity of the Company’s operating lease liabilities as of March 31, 2020 (in thousands):

Total minimum future lease payments of approximately $4.3 million for a lease that has not commenced as of March 31, 2020 is not included in the table above or in the lease liability in consolidated financial statements, as the Company does not yet have control of the underlying asset. The lease is expected to commence in the second half of 2020, with a lease term of 7 years.

The following table presents the Company’s accrued expenses and other current liabilities as of March 31, 2020 (in thousands):

On February 11, 2020, the Company announced a rights offering pursuant to which it distributed to holders of its common stock and Series A Preferred Stock and Series B Preferred Stock, at no charge, non-transferable subscription rights to purchase shares of Spero common stock and Series C Convertible Preferred Stock (“Series C Preferred Stock”), with an aggregate offering value of $30.0 million. For each share of common stock (including shares of common stock issuable upon conversion of the Company’s outstanding shares of Series A Preferred Stock and Series B Preferred Stock) owned by holders of record as of 5:00 p.m., New York time, on February 10, 2020, such holders received 0.152 rights to purchase shares of Spero common stock (subject to the aggregate offering threshold and certain ownership limitations). Each whole right allowed holders to subscribe for one share of common stock at the subscription price equal to $9.00 per whole share (or an equivalent number of shares of Series C Preferred Stock). The total number of subscription rights issued to each stockholder was rounded down to the nearest whole number.

The Rights Offering was fully backstopped by certain affiliates of BVF Partners L.P. (“BVF”), which agreed to purchase, at a minimum, their respective as-converted pro rata share of the offered shares under the Rights Offering, plus an additional amount of Common Stock or Series C Preferred Shares that are not subscribed by other purchasers in the Rights Offering, for a total of up to $30.0 million.

At the closing of the rights offering on March 5, 2020, a total of 1,046,249 shares of the Company’s common stock and 2,287 shares of Series C Preferred Stock were issued for aggregate gross proceeds of $30.0 million. The aggregate issue costs related to the offering were $0.5 million. $20.6 million of the aggregate gross proceeds relates to the issuance of Series C and the associated issuance costs are $0.1 million.

Each share of Series C Preferred Stock is convertible into 1,000 shares of Spero common stock at the election of the holder, subject to beneficial ownership conversion limits applicable to the Series C Preferred Stock. In the event of the Company’s liquidation, dissolution, or winding up, holders of Series C Preferred Stock will receive a payment equal to $0.001 per share of Series C Preferred Stock before any proceeds are distributed to the holders of Common Stock and equal to any distributions to the holders of the Series A and Series B Convertible Preferred Stocks. The Series C Preferred Stock have no voting rights, except as required by law. The Series C Convertible Preferred Stock does not have any mandatory redemption rights or other redemption rights that would be outside of the Company’s control. As such, the Company has classified the Series C Convertible Preferred Stock within permanent equity in its consolidated balance sheet.

Upon issuance, each share of Series C Preferred Stock included an embedded beneficial conversion feature. The beneficial conversion feature arose because the market price of the Company’s common stock on the date of issuance of the Series C Preferred Stock was $9.22 per share as compared to an effective conversion price of the Series C Preferred Stock of $8.98 per share. As a result, the Company recorded the intrinsic value of the beneficial conversion feature of $0.5 million as a discount on the Series C Preferred Stock at issuance. Because the Series C Preferred Stock is immediately convertible upon issuance and does not include mandatory redemption provisions, the discount on the Series C Preferred Stock was immediately accreted.

On December 3, 2018, the Company filed a universal shelf registration statement on Form S-3 (Registration No. 333-228661) with the SEC, which was declared effective on December 11, 2018, pursuant to which it registered for sale up to $200.0 million of any combination of its common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants, rights and/or units from time to time and at prices and on terms that the Company may determine, including up to $50.0 million of its common stock available for issuance pursuant to an at-the-market offering program sales agreement that it entered into with Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. (“Cantor”). Under the sales agreement, Cantor may sell shares of the Company’s common stock by any method permitted by law deemed to be an “at the market” (“ATM”) offering as defined in Rule 415 of the Securities Act, subject to the terms of the sales agreement. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the Company did not have any ATM sales.

On June 12, 2019, the Company entered into a securities purchase agreement with Novo Holdings A/S (“Novo”) to sell up to an aggregate of $10.0 million of its common stock, $0.001 par value per share, in two closings pursuant to the Company’s effective registration statement on Form S-3 (Registration No. 333-228661). The initial closing occurred on June 14, 2019 and consisted of 465,983 shares of common stock sold at a price of $10.73 per share for gross proceeds of $5.0 million prior to deducting offering expenses. The second closing of approximately $5.0 million occurred on October 18, 2019, pursuant to the terms of the securities purchase agreement. The number of shares sold in the second closing was determined by the volume weighted average trading price (“VWAP”) of the Company’s common stock prior to the date of the second closing, and consisted of 465,116 shares of common stock sold at a price of $10.75 per share for gross proceeds of approximately $5.0 million prior to deducting offering expenses.

In June 2019, a holder of the Company’s Series A Convertible Preferred stock elected to convert 500 shares into 500,000 shares of the Company’s common stock, pursuant to such holder’s rights under the certificate of designation for such Series A Convertible Preferred Stock.

In March 2020, at the closing of the rights offering, a total of 1,046,249 shares of the Company’s common were issued with total gross proceeds of $9.4 million. The cost of offering incurred was $0.4 million.

Subsequent to March 31, 2020 and through April 30, 2020, the Company sold 286,448 shares of its common stock under the ATM agreement at an average price of approximately $9.80 per share for aggregate gross proceeds of approximately $2.8 million prior to deducting sales commissions.

During 2019, the Company granted 100,000 options and 50,000 restricted stock units (“RSUs”) containing the same performance-based vesting criteria. These options and RSUs (the “Performance Awards”) are subject to performance-based vesting eligibility and a subsequent partial time-based vesting schedule. Specifically, the Performance Awards are eligible for vesting based on the achievement of performance criteria, each representing a 25% vesting opportunity if achieved within a specified time during the performance period (the “Performance Period”), and relating to (i) the release of tebipenem HBr top-line data; (ii) FDA acceptance of a tebipenem HBr New Drug Application; (iii) non-dilutive financing; and (iv) equity financing. Following the Performance Period, Performance Awards determined to be eligible for vesting as a result of achievement of the performance criteria will vest as follows: (a) 50% of the eligible award will vest immediately, and (b) the remaining eligible award will vest (i) in the case of options, in equal monthly installments ending two years after the Performance Period expiration, and (ii) in the case of RSUs, on such two year anniversary.

As of March 31, 2020, 84,146 options and 40,750 RSUs granted under the 2017 Plan containing performance-based vesting criteria remain outstanding.

No compensation expense was recognized associated with performance-based awards as the performance condition is not yet probable of achievement.

The weighted-average grant date fair value of options, estimated as of the grant date using the Black-Scholes option pricing model, was $6.38 and $4.49 per option for those options granted during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively. Key assumptions used to apply this pricing model were as follows:

The following table summarizes stock option activity (excluding RSUs) during the three months ended March 31, 2020:

As of March 31, 2020, a total of 4,015,763 shares have been authorized and reserved for issuance under all equity plans and 323,921 shares were available for future issuance under such plans.

The Company recorded share-based compensation expense related to incentive stock options, nonqualified stock options, stock grants, and stock-based awards in the following expense categories of its consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss (in thousands):

The Company has entered into license agreements with various parties under which it is obligated to make contingent and non-contingent payments (see Note 11).

The Company has entered into an operating lease agreement with U.S. REIF Central Plaza Massachusetts, LLC with respect to its corporate headquarters located at 675 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts (see Note 4).

In the ordinary course of business, the Company may provide indemnification of varying scope and terms to vendors, lessors, business partners and other parties with respect to certain matters including, but not limited to, losses arising out of breach of such agreements or from intellectual property infringement claims made by third parties. In addition, the Company has entered into indemnification agreements with members of its board of directors that will require the Company, among other things, to indemnify them against certain liabilities that may arise by reason of their status or service as directors or officers. The maximum potential amount of future payments the Company could be required to make under these indemnification agreements is, in many cases, unlimited. To date, the Company has not incurred any material costs as a result of such indemnifications. The Company does not believe that the outcome of any claims under indemnification arrangements will have a material effect on its financial position, results of operations or cash flows, and it has not accrued any liabilities related to such obligations in its consolidated financial statements as of March 31, 2020 or December 31, 2019.

The Company is not currently party to any material legal proceedings. At each reporting date, the Company evaluates whether or not a potential loss amount or a potential range of loss is probable and reasonably estimable under the provisions of the authoritative guidance that addresses accounting for contingencies. The Company expenses as incurred the costs related to such legal proceedings.

In July 2018, the Company was awarded a contract from Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (“BARDA”) of up to $44.2 million to develop tebipenem HBr for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections (“cUTI”) caused by antibiotic resistant Gram-negative bacteria and for assessment against biodefense pathogens.

The award committed initial funding of $15.7 million over a three-year base period from July 1, 2018 to June 30, 2021 for cUTI development activities. In May 2019, the contract was modified to include additional funding of $2.5 million for tebipenem HBr, increasing the amount of initial committed funding from $15.7 million to $18.2 million and increasing the overall potential award to $46.8 million. In January 2020, BARDA exercised its first contract option for additional committed funding of $15.9 million, increasing the total committed funding to $34.1 million. The balance of the award is subject to BARDA exercising a second option which would entail funding of $12.7 million and is exercisable by BARDA subject to, among other things, satisfactory progress and results from the biodefense studies described below.

As part of an inter-agency collaboration between BARDA and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (“DTRA”), a series of studies to assess the efficacy of tebipenem HBr in the treatment of infections caused by biodefense threats such as anthrax, plague and melioidosis will be conducted by the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (“USAMRIID”) under the direction of Spero. Because the FDA requires data from a human pneumonic disease as supportive of use of an antibiotic to treat a biothreat infection, the scope of the BARDA award includes the assessment of tebipenem HBr levels in the lung of healthy volunteers as well as a proof of concept clinical trial in pneumonia patients. DRTA provides up to $10.0 million, in addition to the total potential award from BARDA, to cover the cost of the nonclinical biodefense aspects of the collaboration program for tebipenem HBr. Together, the two agencies will provide up to $56.8 million in total funding for the clinical development and biodefense assessment of tebipenem HBr, a portion of which, $12.7 million, is subject to the exercise of options by BARDA and Spero’s achievement of specified milestones.

The Company recognized $1.2 million and $3.6 million of revenue under the BARDA award during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively.

On July 1, 2019, the Company received a $5.9 million award from the DoD Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs (“CDMRP”) Joint Warfighter Medical Research Program. The funding will support the further clinical development of SPR206. The award commits non-dilutive funding of $5.9 million over a four-year period to cover the costs of select Phase 1 pharmacology studies, a 28-day GLP non-human primate toxicology study, and microbiological surveillance studies that would be required for a potential New Drug Application, or NDA, submission with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for SPR206. The Company recognized immaterial revenue under this agreement during the three months ended March 31, 2020.

In September 2016, the Company was awarded a cooperative agreement with the DoD to further develop anti-infective agents to combat Gram-negative bacteria. The agreement was initially structured as a single, two-year $1.5 million award. The performance period has since then been extended through September 29, 2019. The Company is eligible for the full funding from the DoD, and there are no options to be exercised at a later date. The DoD funding supports next-generation potentiator discovery and screening of SPR741 partners. The Company recognizes revenue under this agreement as qualifying expenses are incurred. The Company did not recognize any revenue under this agreement during the three months ended March 31, 2020, and recognized immaterial revenue during the three months ended March 31, 2019.

In February 2017, the Company was awarded a grant from the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, or NIAID, under its Small Business Innovation Research program, to conduct additional preclinical studies of SPR720, the Company’s novel oral bacterial gyrase inhibitor, for the treatment of non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections. The award is structured as a 12-month $0.6 million base period and a $0.4 million option period. Through December 31, 2017, only the base period funds had been

committed. In February 2018, NIAID exercised the $0.4 million 12-month option period. In January 2019, the period of performance for this award was extended for an additional 12-month period. The Company recognized approximately $0.1 million and $0.1 million of revenue under this agreement during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively.

In June 2016, the Company entered into agreements with Pro Bono Bio PLC (“PBB”), a corporation organized under the laws of England, and certain of its affiliates, including PBB Distributions Limited and Cantab Anti-Infectives Limited (“CAI”), in order to acquire certain intellectual property and government funding arrangements relating to SPR206. Under these agreements, CAI agreed to submit a request to NIAID to assign the then CAI-held NIAID contract to Spero, which was finalized in December 2017. The NIAID contract provides for development funding of up to $6.5 million over a base period and three option periods. As of December 31, 2018, funding for the base period and the first two option periods totaling $5.9 million have been committed. Spero shall pay PBB a percentage of funds received from NIAID up to a maximum of $1.3 million, of which $0.3 million was paid upfront to PBB as part of the agreement. The Company recognized approximately $0.3 million and $0.3 million of revenue under this agreement during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively.

The Company has certain obligations under license agreements with third parties that include annual maintenance fees and payments that are contingent upon achieving various development, regulatory and commercial milestones. Pursuant to these license agreements, the Company is required to make milestone payments if certain development, regulatory and commercial milestones are achieved, and may have certain additional research funding obligations. Also, pursuant to the terms of each of these license agreements, when and if commercial sales of a product commence, the Company will pay royalties to its licensors on net sales of the respective products.

Under the Company’s agreement with Vaxart for certain intellectual property and know-how relating to developing a gyrase inhibitor to develop therapies for Gram-negative infections, the Company was obligated to make milestone payments of up to an aggregate of $12.0 million upon the achievement of specified clinical, regulatory and commercial milestones and to pay royalties of low single-digit percentages based on net sales of products the Company acquired under the agreement.

In November 2019, the Company and Vaxart entered into a stock repurchase agreement which terminated all of the Company’s obligations to Vaxart.

Under the Cantab Agreements, the Company is obligated to make milestone payments of up to $5.8 million upon the achievement of specified clinical and regulatory milestones and a payment of £5.0 million ($6.2 million and $6.6 million as of March 31, 2020 and December 31, 2019, respectively) upon the achievement of a specified commercial milestone. In addition, the Company has agreed to pay to PBB royalties, on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis, of a low single-digit percentage based on net sales of products licensed under the agreement. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the Company did not record any research and development expense related to the achievement of regulatory milestones for SPR206.

The Cantab Agreements continue indefinitely, with royalty payment obligations thereunder continuing on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis until the later of ten years after the first commercial sale of such product in such country or the expiration in such country of the last to expire valid claim of any of the applicable patents.

In May 2016, the Company entered into an agreement with Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated (“Vertex”) whereby Vertex granted the Company certain know-how and a sublicense to research, develop, manufacture and sell products for a proprietary compound, as well as a transfer of materials. In exchange for the know-how, sublicense and materials, Spero paid Vertex an upfront, one-time, nonrefundable, non-creditable fee of $0.5 million, which was recognized as research and development expense. As part of the agreement, the Company is obligated to make future milestone payments of up to $81.1 million upon the achievement of specified clinical, regulatory and commercial milestones and to pay Vertex tiered royalties, on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis, of a mid single-digit to low double-digit percentage based on net sales of products licensed under the agreement. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the Company did not record any research and development expense related to the achievement of regulatory milestones for SPR720.

The agreement continues in effect until the expiration of all payment obligations thereunder, with royalty payment obligations continuing on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis until the later of ten years after the first commercial sale of such product in such country or the date of expiration in such country of the last to expire applicable patent. Further, Vertex has the right to terminate the agreement if provided with notification from the Company of intent to cease all development or if no material development or commercialization efforts occur for one year.

In June 2017, the Company entered into agreements with Meiji Seika Pharma Co. Ltd. (“Meiji”), a Japanese corporation, whereby Meiji granted to the Company certain know-how and a license to research, develop, manufacture and sell products for a proprietary compound in the licensed territory. In exchange for the know-how and license, the Company paid Meiji an upfront, one-time, nonrefundable, non-creditable fee of $0.6 million, which was recognized as research and development expense. As part of the agreement, the Company is obligated to make milestone payments of up to $3.0 million upon the achievement of specified clinical and regulatory milestones, to pay royalties, on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis, of a low single-digit percentage based on net sales of products licensed under the agreement and to pay Meiji a low double-digit percentage of any sublicense fees received by the Company up to $7.5 million. In October 2017, the Company paid a $1.0 million milestone payment to Meiji upon the enrollment of the first patient in the Company’s Phase 1 clinical trial of tebipenem HBr. The payment was recorded as research and development expense in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss for the year ended December 31, 2017. Additionally, the Company paid Meiji approximately $1.6 million during the fourth quarter of 2018 related to fixed assets which will be used in manufacturing related activities at Meiji. This equipment has been capitalized as property and equipment in the condensed consolidated balance sheet as of March 31, 2020.

The agreement continues in effect until the expiration of all payment obligations thereunder (including royalty payments and licensee revenue) on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis, unless earlier terminated by the parties. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, in addition to each party’s right to terminate the agreement upon the other party’s material breach (if not cured within a specified period after receipt of notice) or insolvency, the Company also has unilateral termination rights (i) in the event that the Company abandons the development and commercialization of tebipenem HBr for efficacy, safety, legal or business factors, and (ii) under certain circumstances arising out of the head license with a global pharmaceutical company.

On January 4, 2019, the Company, through its wholly owned subsidiary New Pharma License Holdings Limited (“NPLH”), entered into a license agreement (the “Everest License Agreement”), with Everest Medicines II Limited. Under the terms of the Everest License Agreement, the Company granted Everest an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize SPR206 or products that contain SPR206 (the “Licensed Products”), in Greater China (which includes Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau), South Korea and certain Southeast Asian countries (the “Territory”). The Company retained development, manufacturing and commercialization rights with respect to SPR206 and Licensed Products in the rest of the world and also retained the right to develop or manufacture SPR206 and Licensed Products in the Territory for use outside the Territory. In addition to the license grant with respect to SPR206, the Company, through its wholly owned subsidiary, Spero Potentiator, Inc., a Delaware corporation, granted Everest a 12-month exclusive option to negotiate with it for an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize SPR741 in the Territory.

Under the terms of the Everest License Agreement, the Company received an upfront payment of $3.0 million that was recognized in the first quarter of 2019, comprised of a $2.0 million payment to license SPR206 and $1.0 million for the exclusive option to negotiate a license to develop SPR741. The Company will receive a milestone payment of $2.0 million upon completion and delivery of the results of a clinical study and future milestones of up to $1.5 million if the Company chooses to complete a future clinical study. The Company may also receive up to an additional $55.0 million in milestone payments upon Everest’s achievement of certain developmental, regulatory and sales milestone events related to SPR206, which achievement cannot be guaranteed. The Company is also entitled to receive high single-digit to low double-digit royalties on net sales, if any, of Licensed Products in the Territory following regulatory approval of SPR206. Everest has the right to sublicense to affiliates and third parties in the Territory.

Everest is responsible for all costs related to developing, obtaining regulatory approval of and commercializing SPR206 and Licensed Products in the Territory, and is obligated to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop, manufacture and commercialize Licensed Products, including to achieve certain specified diligence milestones within agreed-upon periods. A joint development committee will be established between the Company and Everest to coordinate and review the development, manufacturing and commercialization plans with respect to Licensed Products in the Territory.

Unless earlier terminated due to certain material breaches of the contract, or otherwise, the Everest License Agreement will expire on a jurisdiction-by-jurisdiction and Licensed Product-by-Licensed Product basis until the latest to occur of expiration of the last valid claim under a licensed patent in such jurisdiction, the expiration of regulatory exclusivity in such jurisdiction or ten years after the first commercial sale of such Licensed Product in such jurisdiction. The Everest License Agreement may be terminated in its entirety by Everest upon 90 or 180 days’ prior written notice, depending on the stage of development of the initial Licensed Product.

The following table shows the performance obligations, along with their SSP and the transaction price allocated to the performance obligations (in thousands) identified by the Company:

During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the Company recognized $0.2 million of revenue related to this agreement. As of March 31, 2020, the aggregate amount of the transaction price allocated to performance obligations that are partially unsatisfied was $0.1 million. The Company has a contract asset of $1.91 million, which is included in prepaid expenses and other current assets in the condensed consolidated balance sheet as of March 31, 2020.

In June 2019, the Company entered into a collaboration with Gates MRI to develop SPR720 for the treatment of lung infections caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In furtherance of the Gates MRI’s charitable purposes, the Company also granted to Gates MRI a no-cost, exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize SPR720 for the treatment of tuberculosis (“TB”) in low- and middle- income countries. The Gates MRI is responsible for formulating and funding its own research plan for the development of SPR720 for TB. As such, Gates MRI will conduct and fund preclinical and clinical studies for the development of SPR720 against TB. In addition, Gates MRI and the Company will jointly design and manage certain collaborative research activities, which the Company will perform and which will be funded by the Gates MRI. Due to the cost-funded nature of the payments and the Company’s assessment that it does not have a vendor/customer relationship with the Gates MRI, the Company will recognize the funding received under the agreement as a reduction to the research and development expenses incurred, as the related expenses are incurred.

During the three months ended March 31, 2020, the Company recorded $0.2 million as a reduction to research and development expense related to activities funded by Gates MRI.

The Australian government has established a research and development tax incentive to encourage industry investment in research and development, which is available to companies incorporated under Australian law that have core research and development activities. In September 2016, the Company established Spero Potentiator Australia Pty Limited to carry out certain research and development activities. As this subsidiary meets the eligibility requirements of the Australian tax law, it is eligible to receive a 43.5% tax incentive for qualified research and development activities.

The Company recorded $0.2 million and less than $0.1 million as a reduction to research and development expenses in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively, associated with this tax incentive, representing 43.5% of the Company’s qualified research and development spending in Australia. The tax incentive refund is denominated in Australian dollars and, therefore, the associated tax incentive receivable is re-measured to U.S. dollars as of each reporting date. The Company’s tax incentive receivables from the Australian government totaled $1.0 million and $0.8 million as of March 31, 2020, and December 31, 2019, respectively.

Basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders of Spero Therapeutics, Inc. was calculated as follows (in thousands, except share and per share amounts):

In 2020, the net loss applicable to common stockholders did not equal net loss due to the accretion of the beneficial conversion feature of Series C Preferred Stock in the amount of $0.5 million. The beneficial conversion feature was initially recorded as a discount on the Series C Preferred Stock with a corresponding amount recorded to Additional Paid-in Capital. The discount on the Series C Preferred Stock was then immediately written off as a deemed dividend as the Series C Preferred Stock does not have a stated redemption date and is immediately convertible at the option of the holder.

The Company excluded potentially dilutive securities from the computation of diluted net loss per share as the effect would be to reduce the net loss per share. Therefore, the weighted average number of common shares outstanding used to calculate both basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders of Spero Therapeutics, Inc. is the same. The Company excluded the following potential common shares, presented based on amounts outstanding at each period end, from the computation of diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the periods indicated because including them would have had an anti-dilutive effect:

The Company has evaluated, for potential recognition and disclosure, events that occurred prior to the date at which the condensed consolidated financial statements were available to be issued. Other than as disclosed in Note 7, there were no material subsequent events.

Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with the unaudited financial information and the notes thereto included appearing elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, and the audited financial information and the notes thereto included in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2019. Some of the information contained in this discussion and analysis or set forth elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, including information with respect to our plans and strategy for our business, includes forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth in the “Risk Factors” section of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in, or implied by, the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis.

We are a multi-asset, clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on identifying, developing and commercializing treatments in high unmet need areas involving multi-drug resistant, or MDR, bacterial infections and rare diseases. Our most advanced product candidate, Tebipenem Pivoxil Hydrobromide, or tebipenem HBr (previously SPR994), is designed to be the first oral carbapenem-class antibiotic for use in adults to treat MDR Gram-negative infections. Treatment with effective orally administrable antibiotics may prevent hospitalizations for serious infections and enable earlier, more convenient and cost-effective treatment of patients after hospitalization. We are also developing SPR720, a novel oral antibiotic designed for the treatment of a rare, orphan disease caused by pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections, or NTM disease. In addition, we have a platform technology known as our Potentiator Platform, which includes an IV-administered product candidate, SPR206, being developed to treat MDR Gram-negative infections in the hospital. We believe that our novel product candidates, if successfully developed and approved, would have a meaningful patient impact and significant commercial applications for the treatment of MDR infections in both the community and hospital settings. Since our inception in 2013, we have focused substantially all of our efforts and financial resources on organizing and staffing our company, business planning, raising capital, acquiring and developing product and technology rights, building our intellectual property portfolio and conducting research and development activities for our product candidates. We do not have any products approved for sale and have not generated any revenue from product sales.

We have experienced net losses and significant cash outflows from cash used in operating activities since our inception. Our ability to generate product revenue sufficient to achieve profitability will depend heavily on the successful development and eventual commercialization of one or more of our product candidates. As of March 31, 2020, we had an accumulated deficit of $222.7 million, and cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities of $88.8 million. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for at least the next several years. Based on our current plans, we believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities, together with the committed funding from our existing BARDA contract and other non-dilutive funding commitments, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2021, including through the filing of an NDA for tebipenem HBr. Because these funds will not be sufficient to fund our operations, as currently planned, for more than one year beyond the filing date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, we have determined that there is substantial doubt regarding our ability to continue as a going concern. We will require additional funding to fund the development of our product candidates through regulatory approval and commercialization, and to support our continued operations. There is no assurance that we will be successful in obtaining sufficient funding on acceptable terms, if at all, and we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate some or all of our research and development programs, product portfolio expansion or commercialization efforts, which could materially adversely affect our business prospects or our ability to continue operations.

We will not generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates. If we obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates and do not enter into a commercialization partnership, we expect to incur significant expenses related to developing our internal commercialization capability to support product sales, marketing and distribution. Further, we expect to incur additional costs associated with our continued operation as a public company.

As a result, we will need substantial additional funding to support our continuing operations and pursue our growth strategy. Until such time as we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our operations through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, government funding arrangements, collaborations, strategic alliances and marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements. We may be unable to raise additional funds or enter into such other agreements or arrangements when needed on favorable terms, or at all. If we fail to raise capital or enter into such agreements as, and when, needed, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development and commercialization of one or more of our product candidates.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, we are unable to accurately predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or when or if we will be able to achieve or maintain profitability. Even if we are able to generate product sales, we may not become profitable. If we fail to become profitable or are unable to sustain profitability on a continuing basis, then we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and be forced to reduce or terminate our operations.

The spread of SARS-CoV-2, and the resulting disease COVID-19 during the first quarter of 2020, has caused an economic downturn on a global scale, as well as widespread business disruptions and significant volatility in the financial markets. In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a pandemic. In response to the pandemic, we have implemented a remote working policy for all employees to aid the global containment effort. Based on our current assessment, we do not expect any material impact on our existing development timeline or our liquidity due to the pandemic. However, we are actively monitoring this situation and its possible effects on our business. The ultimate extent to which the outbreak may impact our business, preclinical studies and clinical trials will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence, such as the ultimate geographic spread of the disease, the duration of the outbreak, travel restrictions and actions to contain the outbreak or treat its impact, such as social distancing and quarantines or lock-downs in the United States and other countries, business closures or business disruptions and the effectiveness of actions taken in the United States and other countries to contain and treat the disease.

On March 5, 2020, we closed our previously announced rights offering issuing 1,046,249 shares of common stock and 2,287 shares of Series C Preferred Stock raising net proceeds of approximately $29.5 million.

Tebipenem HBr – Completion of patient enrollment in pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial (ADAPT-PO) of oral tebipenem HBr versus intravenous ertapenem for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infection and exercise of $15.9 million option by BARDA for tebipenem HBr development

On May 5, 2020, we announced that ADAPT-PO completed enrollment of over 1,370 eligible subjects in a global study designed as a double-blind, double-dummy clinical trial to compare an all-oral regimen of tebipenem HBr dosed as 600 mg TID with a standard-of-care intravenous (IV) antibiotic, ertapenem, in patients with cUTI and AP, randomized 1:1 in each arm. With enrollment complete, the final group of patients in the trial will complete their treatment course and final safety follow-up visit. The Company anticipates reporting topline results from the ADAPT-PO clinical trial in the third quarter of 2020.

On February 5, 2020, we announced that the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, or BARDA exercised its first contract option for additional committed funding pursuant to its existing contract with us. Specifically, the option exercise provides us with $15.9 million in reimbursement for the further development of tebipenem HBr. The $15.9 million option exercise is expected to support the funding of specified manufacturing activities required for approval of tebipenem HBr, including active pharmaceutical ingredient, or API, validation batch manufacturing and stability studies. Additionally, the option is expected to support the funding of several non-clinical and clinical development activities, including a Phase 1 bronchoalveolar lavage, or BAL, study in healthy subjects that we anticipate initiating in the third quarter of 2020, as well as non-human primate efficacy studies in one or more models of biothreat disease. The option was exercised under our existing 2018 contract with BARDA, which provides for reimbursement to us of up to $46.8 million for qualified expenses for tebipenem HBr development over a five-year period. Total committed funding under the BARDA award to date is $34.1 million, inclusive of the first contract option exercised in 2020. There is a second option exercisable by BARDA for the remaining $12.7 million of funding, subject to specified milestones being achieved under the award agreement. Furthermore, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, or DTRA provides up to $10.0 million, in addition to the total potential award from BARDA, to cover the cost of the nonclinical biodefense aspects of the collaboration program for tebipenem HBr.

SPR720 – Receipt of FDA orphan drug designation status for SPR720 for the treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection, recent FDA meeting, and first indication of human safety and PK profiles for SPR720 in Phase 1 clinical trial supports advancement of program to a Phase 2a proof-of-concept clinical trial in patients planned to initiate in the second half of 2020

In May 2020, we had a meeting with the FDA to discuss the development plan for SPR720 for the treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. We anticipate receiving written minutes from the FDA within thirty days of the meeting. We plan to submit an Investigational New Drug Application, or IND, to the FDA and initiate a Phase 2a clinical trial of SPR720 in patients with NTM disease during the second half of 2020.

In March 2020, the FDA granted orphan drug designation for oral SPR720 for the treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial, or NTM infection. The FDA’s Office of Orphan Products Development, or OOPD grants orphan designation status to a drug that is intended to treat a rare disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 persons in the United States. Orphan drug designation provides certain benefits and incentives that may include tax credits towards the cost of clinical trials and prescription drug user fee waivers and the potential for seven years of market exclusivity in the United States upon regulatory approval.

On December 4, 2019, we announced preliminary findings from our Phase 1 first-in-human clinical trial of SPR720. Analysis of blinded data from the Phase 1 double-blind, placebo-controlled single ascending dose, or SAD, and multiple ascending dose, or MAD, clinical trial in healthy volunteers suggests that SPR720 is generally well-tolerated, with a pharmacokinetic, or PK, profile that we believe supports the further development of SPR720 as an oral agent for the treatment of NTM disease. Specifically, there were no serious adverse events reported and all participants completed the trial. An analysis of preliminary data indicates that SPR720 was

generally well-tolerated at doses up to 1000 mg over the maximum studied duration of 14 days. Preliminary analyses of PK data across the cohorts show no significant impact of either advanced age or administration with food on PK variables. At doses of 500 mg or higher, the mean plasma drug exposures of SPR719, the active metabolite of SPR720, are consistent with those suggested by in vitro and in vivo models of SPR720 to be necessary for clinical efficacy against target NTM pathogens. In early February 2020, data from the SPR720 Phase 1 clinical trial were unblinded and the findings are in line with the preliminary analysis.

Potentiator Platform – Based on preliminary findings from Phase 1 clinical trial, we have selected SPR206 as lead product candidate within Potentiator Platform, and discontinued development of SPR741

On January 13, 2020, we announced preliminary findings from our Phase 1 first-in-humans clinical trial of SPR206. Analysis of preliminary, blinded data from the Phase 1 double-blind, placebo-controlled SAD and MAD clinical trial in healthy adult volunteers suggests that SPR206 is well-tolerated at doses that are likely to be within a therapeutic range for target MDR Gram-negative bacterial infections and has a safety profile that we believe supports the further development of SPR206. The decision to continue development of SPR206 is also supported by data from nonclinical studies in which SPR206 demonstrated activity as a single agent against MDR and extensively drug resistant, or XDR, bacterial strains, including isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, in both in vitro and in vivo models of infection.

The Phase 1 clinical trial of SPR206 (Study SPR206-101) evaluated the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered SPR206 at single doses ranging from 10 mg to 400 mg in seven SAD cohorts and repeat total daily doses ranging from 75 mg to 450 mg for seven consecutive days and 300 mg for 14 consecutive days across five MAD cohorts. A total of 96 healthy volunteers were randomized to receive SPR206 or placebo. All reported adverse events were mild to moderate and there were no reported severe or serious adverse events. No evidence of nephrotoxicity was observed and there were no subjects with clinically significant changes in laboratory tests during the study. Although the data remain blinded, an analysis of preliminary data indicates that SPR206 was well-tolerated at doses up to 100 mg administered three-times a day, a total of 300 mg daily, for 14 consecutive days. Preliminary analyses of pharmacokinetic data across the cohorts indicates dose linearity and dose proportionality as well as mean plasma drug exposures of SPR206 that are concordant with preclinical models predictive for clinical efficacy against target Gram-negative pathogens.

We expect to receive a development milestone payment from our partner Everest Medicines upon delivery of the SPR206-101 SAD/MAD clinical study report, or CSR, as specified under the regional collaboration launched in 2019 and expect to present final data from the Phase 1 clinical trial in the second half of 2020. In conjunction with Everest Medicines, and through its grant from the DoD awarded in July 2019, we plan to conduct a Phase 1 BAL clinical trial assessing the penetration of SPR206 into the pulmonary compartment in the second half of 2020 as well as initiate a renal impairment study of SPR206.

Based on the foregoing, we have determined to discontinue development of SPR741, effective January 1, 2020. We believe that the collective data from the recent Phase 1 and preclinical studies suggest a potency and safety profile for SPR206 that may be superior to SPR741. Further, we believe SPR206 may have a potentially faster path to pivotal clinical trials when compared with SPR741 because SPR206 is being developed as a single agent. As a result of this decision, we have terminated our license agreement with Northern Antibiotics Oy (Ltd.) relating to SPR741. Effective January 1, 2020, the intellectual property rights associated with SPR741 have entirely reverted to Northern Antibiotics and we no longer have any rights with respect thereto and we no longer have any obligations for the cost of maintaining such intellectual property.

To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and do not expect to generate any revenue from the sale of products in the foreseeable future. If our development efforts for our product candidates are successful and result in regulatory approval, we may generate revenue in the future from product sales. We cannot predict if, when, or to what extent we will generate revenue from the commercialization and sale of our product candidates. We may never succeed in obtaining regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

To date, the majority of our revenue has been derived from government awards. We expect that our revenue for the next several years will be derived primarily from payments under our government awards that we have currently entered into and that we may enter into in the future.

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred for our research activities, including our drug discovery efforts, and the development of our product candidates.

Since the fourth quarter of 2016 and through March 31, 2020, we have recorded research and development expenses conducted by our Australian subsidiary net of a 43.5% research and development tax incentive we expect to receive for qualified expenses from the Australian government.

In June 2019, we entered into a collaboration with the Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, or the Gates MRI, a nonprofit research institution wholly owned by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, to develop SPR720 for the treatment of lung infections caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or Mtb. In furtherance of the Gates MRI’s charitable purposes, we also granted the Gates MRI a no cost, exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize SPR720 for the treatment of tuberculosis, or TB, in low- and middle- income countries. Gates MRI will conduct and fund preclinical and clinical studies for the development of SPR720 against TB, and also fund certain agreed upon collaborative research activities performed by us. Due to our assessment that we do not have a vendor/customer relationship with the Gates MRI, we will recognize the funding received under the agreement as a reduction to the research and development expenses as the related expenses are incurred.

We expense research and development costs as incurred. Nonrefundable advance payments we make for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses. The prepaid amounts are expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed.

Our direct research and development expenses are tracked on a program-by-program basis and consist primarily of external costs, such as fees paid to consultants, contractors, CMOs and CROs in connection with our preclinical and clinical development activities. License fees and other costs incurred after a product candidate has been designated and that are directly related to the product candidate are included in direct research and development expenses for that program. License fees and other costs incurred prior to designating a product candidate are included in early stage research programs. We do not allocate employee costs, costs associated with our preclinical programs or facility expenses, including depreciation or other indirect costs, to specific product development programs because these costs are deployed across multiple product development programs and, as such, are not separately classified.

Product candidates in later stages of clinical development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages of clinical development, primarily due to the increased size and duration of later-stage clinical trials. The Company continues to expect that its research and development expenses will increase in 2020 relative to 2019 due to the greater expense associated with the pivotal ADAPT-PO trial, for which the Company expects to report data in the third quarter of 2020, the initiation of a SPR720 Phase 2a clinical trial in the second half of 2020, and increased research and development personnel to support the ongoing and planned programs.

At this time, we cannot reasonably estimate or know the nature, timing and costs of the efforts that will be necessary to complete the preclinical and clinical development of any of our product candidates. The successful development and commercialization of our product candidates is highly uncertain. This is due to the numerous risks and uncertainties, including the following:

A change in the outcome of any of these variables with respect to the development of any of our product candidates would significantly change the costs and timing associated with the development of that product candidate. We may never succeed in obtaining regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and related costs, including share-based compensation, for personnel in executive, finance and administrative functions. General and administrative expenses also include direct and allocated facility-related costs as well as professional fees for legal, patent, consulting, investor and public relations, accounting and audit services. We anticipate that our general and administrative expenses will increase in the future as we increase our headcount to support our continued research, development and commercialization of our product candidates. We also anticipate that we will incur increased accounting, audit, legal, regulatory, compliance, infrastructure and director and officer insurance costs as well as investor and public relations expenses associated with operating as a public company.

Interest income consists of interest earned on our cash equivalents, which are primarily invested in money market accounts, as well as interest earned on our investments in marketable securities that we held during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019.

Other income (expense), net, consists of insignificant amounts of miscellaneous income, as well as realized and unrealized gains and losses from foreign currency-denominated cash balances, vendor payables and receivables from the Australian research and development tax incentive.

Since our inception, we have not recorded any income tax benefits for the net losses we have incurred in each year or for our earned research and development tax credits, as we believe, based upon the weight of available evidence, that it is more likely than not that all of our net operating loss carryforwards and tax credits will not be realized. As of December 31, 2019, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $156.8 million and $157.8 million, respectively, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and begin to expire in 2033. In addition, as of December 31, 2019, we had foreign net operating loss carryforwards of $7.7 million, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and do not expire. As of December 31, 2019, we also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $4.1 million and $1.1 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2033 and 2028, respectively. We have recorded a full valuation allowance against our net deferred tax assets at each balance sheet date.

Our consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States, or GAAP. The preparation of our consolidated financial statements and related disclosures requires us to make estimates, assumptions and judgments that affect the reported amount of assets, liabilities, revenue, costs and expenses, and related disclosures. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

We believe that the following accounting policies are those most critical to the judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our financial statements.

Since our inception, we have been able to obtain partial funding for our research and development activities from government contracts, government tax incentives and a collaboration arrangement. The classification within our statement of operations and comprehensive loss of the funding received under these arrangements is subject to management judgment based on the nature of the arrangements we enter into, the source of the funding and whether the funding is considered central to our business operations.

We generate revenue from government contracts that reimburse us for certain allowable costs for funded projects. We have determined that government grant revenue is outside the scope of ASC 606. For contracts with government agencies, when we have concluded that we are the principal in conducting the research and development expenses and where the funding arrangement is considered central to our ongoing operations, we classify the recognized funding received as revenue.

We recognize funding received from the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, or BARDA, the U.S. Department of Defense, or the DoD, and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, or NIAID, of the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, as revenue, rather than as a reduction of research and development expenses, because we are the principal in conducting the research and development activities and these contracts are central to our ongoing operations. We recognize revenue only after the qualifying expenses related to the contracts have been incurred, we are reasonably assured that the expenses will be reimbursed and the revenue is collectable. We record revenue recognized upon incurring qualifying expenses in advance of billing as unbilled revenue, which is included in other receivables in our consolidated balance sheet. The related costs incurred by us are included in research and development expense in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.

For available government tax incentives that we may earn without regard to the existence of taxable income and that require us to forego tax deductions or the use of future tax credits and net operating loss carryforwards, we classify the funding recognized as a reduction of the related qualifying research and development expenses incurred.

Since the fourth quarter of 2016, our operating subsidiary in Australia has met the eligibility requirements to receive a 43.5% tax incentive for qualifying research and development activities. We recognize these incentives as a reduction of research and development expenses in our consolidated statements of operations in the same period that the related qualifying expenses are incurred. Reductions of research and development expense recognized upon incurring qualifying expenses in advance of receipt of tax incentive payments are recorded in our consolidated balance sheet as tax incentive receivables.

Related to these incentives, we recognized reductions of research and development expense of $0.2 million and less than $0.1 million during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively.

For collaboration agreements with a third party, to determine the appropriate statement of operations classification of the recognized funding, we first assess whether the collaboration arrangement is within the scope of the accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements. If it is, we evaluate the collaborative arrangement for proper classification in the statement of operations based on the nature of the underlying activity and we assess the payments to and from the collaborative partner. If the payments to and from the collaborative partner are not within the scope of other authoritative accounting guidance, we base the statement of operations classification for the payments received on a reasonable, rational analogy to authoritative accounting guidance, applied in a consistent manner. Conversely, if the collaboration arrangement is not within the scope of accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements, we assess whether the collaboration arrangement represents a vendor/customer relationship. If the collaborative arrangement does not represent a vendor/customer relationship, we then classify the funding payments received in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss as a reduction of the related expense that is incurred.

In June 2019, we entered into a collaboration agreement with the Gates MRI and concluded that the agreement is within the scope of the accounting guidance for collaboration arrangements. Due to the cost-funded nature of the payments and our assessment that we do not have a vendor/customer relationship with the Gates MRI, we will recognize the funding received under the agreement as a reduction to research and development expense as we incur the related expenses.

As part of the process of preparing our consolidated financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses. This process involves reviewing open contracts and purchase orders, communicating with our applicable personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf and estimating the level of service performed and the associated cost incurred for the service when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of actual costs. The majority of our service providers invoice us in arrears for services performed, on a pre-determined schedule or when contractual milestones are met; however, some require advance payments. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date in the consolidated financial statements based on facts and circumstances known to us at that time. We periodically confirm the accuracy of the estimates with the service providers and make adjustments if necessary. Examples of estimated accrued research and development expenses include fees paid to:

We base our expenses related to preclinical studies and clinical trials on our estimates of the services received and efforts expended pursuant to quotes and contracts with multiple research institutions and CROs that conduct and manage preclinical studies and clinical trials on our behalf. The financial terms of these agreements are subject to negotiation, vary from contract to contract and may result in uneven payment flows. There may be instances in which payments made to our vendors will exceed the level of services provided and result in a prepayment of the expense. In accruing service fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed and the level of effort to be expended in each period. If the actual timing of the performance of services or the level of effort varies from the estimate, we adjust the accrual or prepaid expense accordingly. Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts actually incurred, our understanding of the status and timing of services performed relative to the actual status and timing of services performed may vary and may result in reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, there have not been any material adjustments to our prior estimates of accrued research and development expenses.

We measure all share-based awards granted to employees and directors based on the fair value on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, and we recognize compensation expense of those awards over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Generally, we issue awards with only service-based vesting conditions and record the expense for these awards using the straight-line method. The Black-Scholes option-pricing model uses as inputs the fair value of our common stock and assumptions we make for the volatility of our common stock, the expected term of our common stock options and incentive units, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of our common stock options and incentive units, and our expected dividend yield.

Our financial statements have been presented on the basis that we are a going concern, which contemplates the realization of revenues and the satisfaction of liabilities in the normal course of business. We have incurred losses from the inception of our operations. These factors raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019 (in thousands):

	Three Months Ended March 31,
	2020			2019			$ Change
Revenues:
Grant revenue	$	1,532		$	3,911		$	(2,379	)
Collaboration revenue		169			3,807			(3,638	)
Total revenues		1,701			7,718			(6,017	)

Operating expenses:
Research and development		20,436			9,526			10,910
General and administrative		4,086			3,888			198
Total operating expenses		24,522			13,414			11,108
Loss from operations		(22,821	)		(5,696	)		(17,125	)
Other income (expense):
Interest income		237			239			(2	)
Other income (expense), net		(674	)		385			(1,059	)
Total other income (expense), net		(437	)		624			(1,061	)
Net loss	$	(23,258	)	$	(5,072	)	$	(18,186	)

Grant revenue recognized during the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019 consisted of the reimbursement of qualifying expenses incurred in connection with our various government awards. The decrease in revenue during the three months ended March 31, 2020 was primarily due to decreased funding received under our BARDA contract offset by immaterial increases received under our other government awards.

Direct costs related to our tebipenem HBr program increased during the three months ended March 31, 2020 compared to the three months ended March 31, 2019 due to $11.6 million in additional costs related to our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial, as well as expenses related to formulation development, manufacturing process and manufacturing of clinical trial material. Additionally, during 2020 and 2019, research and development expenses for our tebipenem HBr program conducted by our Australian subsidiary were recorded net of a 43.5% research and development tax incentive for qualified expenses from the Australian government of $1.0 million. We expect direct costs related to tebipenem HBr to continue to increase as we conclude our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial and incur expenses related to a potential NDA filing for tebipenem HBr.

Direct costs related to our SPR720 program decreased during the three months ended March 31, 2020 as compared to the three months ended March 31, 2019, primarily due to lower costs related to the Phase 1 clinical trial of SPR720. Direct costs related to our SPR720 program during the three months ended March 31, 2020 reflect a $0.2 million reduction to expense related to activities funded by Gates MRI.

Direct costs related to our Potentiator Platform include costs related to our SPR206 and SPR741 programs. Direct costs related to our SPR206 program decreased by $0.8 million during the three months ended March 31, 2020, primarily due to higher costs incurred in the prior year related to the Phase 1 trial. Direct costs related to our SPR741 program were immaterial for both the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, due to the decision in early January 2020 to proceed with SPR206 as the lead product candidate within the Potentiator Platform and discontinue development of SPR741.

The increase in personnel-related costs included in unallocated expenses of $0.7 million was due to an increase in research and development headcount, as well as a $0.5 million increase in share-based compensation.

The decrease in facility-related and other costs was primarily due to the increased costs of supporting a larger group of research and development personnel and their research efforts.

The increase in personnel-related costs of $0.3 million was primarily a result of an increase in headcount in our general and administrative function. Personnel-related costs for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019 included share-based compensation expense of $0.6 million and $0.6 million, respectively.

Professional and consultant fees remained relatively flat as increased commercial readiness activities were offset by lower legal expenses.

The decrease in facility-related and other costs was primarily due to the higher allocation of costs to research and development due to the increased research and development headcount.

Other income (expense), net was $(0.4) million for the three months ended March 31, 2020, compared to $0.6 million for the three months ended March 31, 2019. The change was primarily due to unrealized foreign currency loss recognized in the first quarter of 2020, in comparison to unrealized foreign currency gain in the first quarter of 2019, as a result of unfavorable foreign currency fluctuations.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant operating losses. We have generated limited revenue to date from funding arrangements with the DoD, NIAID, CARB-X and BARDA. We have not yet commercialized any of our product candidates and we do not expect to generate revenue from sales of any product candidates for several years, if at all. To date, we have funded our operations with proceeds from the sales of preferred units and bridge units, payments received under license and collaboration agreements and funding from government contracts, with proceeds from the IPO of our common stock, in July 2018 with an underwritten public offering of our common and preferred stock, and subsequent sales of our common stock and preferred stock. As of March 31, 2020, we had cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities of $88.8 million.

On February 11, 2020, the Company announced a rights offering pursuant to which it distributed to holders of its common stock and Series A Preferred Stock and Series B Preferred Stock, at no charge, non-transferable subscription rights to purchase shares of our common stock and Series C Convertible Preferred Stock, or Series C Preferred Stock, with an aggregate offering value of $30.0 million. For each share of common stock (including shares of common stock issuable upon conversion of the Company’s outstanding shares of Series A Preferred Stock and Series B Preferred Stock) owned by holders of record as of 5:00 p.m., New York time, on February 10, 2020, such holders received 0.152 rights to purchase shares of our common stock (subject to the aggregate offering threshold and certain ownership limitations). Each whole right allowed holders to subscribe for one share of common stock at the subscription price equal to $9.00 per whole share (or an equivalent number of shares of Series C Preferred Stock). The total number of subscription rights issued to each stockholder was rounded down to the nearest whole number.

Any participant in the rights offering that, following exercise of such participant’s subscription right, would be or become a holder of greater than 9.99% of the outstanding number of shares of the Company’s common stock following the offering could elect to instead purchase Series C Preferred Stock at a purchase price of $9,000 per share (ratably adjusted for fractional shares), and any such holder so electing had a right to purchase one one-thousandth of a share of Series C Preferred Stock for each share of common stock it had a right to purchase under the subscription rights. Each share of Series C Preferred Stock is convertible into 1,000 shares of our common stock at the election of the holder, subject to beneficial ownership conversion limits applicable to the Series C Preferred Stock. The Series C Preferred Stock generally have no voting rights, except as required by law, and participate pari passu (on an as-converted basis) with any distribution of proceeds to holders of common stock and Series A Preferred Stock and Series B Preferred Stock, in the event of the Company’s liquidation, dissolution or winding up or the payment of a dividend on the common stock.

At the closing of the rights offering on March 5, 2020, a total of 1,046,249 shares of our common stock and 2,287 shares of Series C Preferred Stock were issued for aggregate gross proceeds of $30.0 million. Issue costs related to the offering were $0.5 million.

On December 3, 2018, we filed a universal shelf registration statement on Form S-3 (Registration No. 333-228661) with the SEC, which was declared effective on December 11, 2018, and pursuant to which we registered for sale up to $200.0 million of any combination of our common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants, rights and/or units from time to time and at prices and on terms that we may determine, including up to $50.0 million of our common stock available for issuance pursuant to an at-the-market offering program sales agreement that we entered into with Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. Under the sales agreement, Cantor may sell shares of our common stock by any method permitted by law deemed to be an “at the market” offering as defined in Rule 415 of the Securities Act, subject to the terms of the sales agreement. During the three months ended March 31, 2020, we did not have any ATM sales.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in ongoing volatility in financial markets. If our access to capital is restricted or associated borrowing costs increase as a result of developments in financial markets relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, our operations and financial condition could be adversely impacted.

The following table summarizes our sources and uses of cash for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019:

Net cash used in operating activities for the three months ended March 31, 2020 was $23.3 million, primarily resulting from our net loss of $23.3 million, adjusted for net non-cash items of $1.8 million (primarily stock-based compensation and unrealized foreign currency transaction loss). Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities was $(1.9) million and consisted primarily of a decrease of $4.8 million in receivables and a $4.8 million increase in accounts payable. These increases in cash were offset by a $0.9 million increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets and a decrease of $9.4 million in accrued expenses. Changes in accounts payable, accrued expenses and other current liabilities, and prepaid expenses and other current assets in all periods were generally due to growth in our business, the advancement of our development programs and the timing of vendor invoicing and payments.

Net cash used in operating activities for the three months ended March 31, 2019 was $10.9 million, primarily resulting from our net loss of $5.1 million, adjusted for net non-cash items of $0.7 million (primarily stock-based compensation). Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities was $6.5 million and consisted primarily of a $6.4 million decrease in accounts payable and accrued expenses, a $0.4 million increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets, a $0.4 million increase in other assets, and an increase of $0.1 million in receivables related to the Australian research and development tax initiative and our receivables under our government awards.

Changes in accounts payable, accrued expenses and other current liabilities, and prepaid expenses and other current assets in all periods were generally due to growth in our business, the advancement of our development programs and the timing of vendor invoicing and payments.

Cash provided by investing activities during the three months ended March 31, 2020 was $27.8 million primarily related to the maturities of marketable securities of $31.8 million offset by purchases of marketable securities of $4.0 million.

Cash provided by investing activities during the three months ended March 31, 2019 was $24.7 million primarily related to the net maturities of marketable securities.

Cash provided by financing activities during the three months ended March 31, 2020 was $30.2 million, consisting primarily of proceeds of $30.0 million from the sale of common stock and Preferred Series C shares in our rights offering and proceeds of $0.5 million from the exercise of employee stock options, offset by offering expenses of $0.4 million.

Cash provided by financing activities during the three months ended March 31, 2019, of $1.6 million consisted primarily of proceeds of $1.5 million from the sale of common stock under the ATM program and $0.1 million of proceeds from the exercise of employee stock options.

We expect our expenses to increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance our clinical programs and prepare for possible commercialization of one or more of our product candidates. In addition, we expect to incur additional costs associated with our continued operation as a public company. The timing and amount of our operating expenditures will depend largely on:

As of March 31, 2020, we had cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities of $88.8 million. In accordance with Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2014-15, Disclosure of Uncertainties about an Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern (Subtopic 205-40), we are required to evaluate whether there are conditions and events, considered in the aggregate, that raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern from the issuance date of our financial statements. Based on our current plans, we believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities as of March 31, 2020, together with the committed funding from our existing BARDA contract and other non-dilutive funding commitments, will not be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements, as currently planned, for more than one year beyond the filing date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q. Specifically, we believe these funds will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2021, including through the filing of an NDA for tebipenem HBr. Because these funds will not be sufficient to fund our operations, as currently planned, for more than one year beyond the filing date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, we have determined that there is substantial doubt regarding our ability to continue as a going concern. Our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2019 were prepared under the assumption that we will continue as a going concern for the next twelve months. As a result, the opinion from our independent registered public accounting firm with respect to our annual financial statements contains an explanatory paragraph about such substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. Our ability to continue as a going concern is dependent upon our ability to obtain additional equity or debt financing, attain further operating efficiencies, reduce expenditures, and, ultimately, to generate revenue. The financial statements do not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome of this uncertainty. The substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern may adversely affect our stock price and our ability to raise capital. There is no assurance that we will be successful in obtaining sufficient funding on acceptable terms, if at all, and we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate some or all of our research and development programs, product portfolio expansion or commercialization efforts, which could materially adversely affect our business prospects or our ability to continue operations.

We have based these estimates on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could utilize our available capital resources sooner than we expect. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with research, development and commercialization of pharmaceutical product candidates, we are unable to estimate the exact amount of our working capital requirements. Our future funding requirements will depend on and could increase significantly as a result of many factors, including those listed above.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenue, we expect to finance our operations through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, government funding, collaborations, strategic alliances and marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, our stockholders’ ownership interests will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of our common stockholders. Debt financing and preferred equity financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making acquisitions or capital expenditures or declaring dividends. If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic alliances or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in ongoing volatility in financial markets. If our access to capital is restricted or associated borrowing costs increase as a result of developments in financial markets, including relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, our operations and financial condition could be adversely impacted. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings or other arrangements when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our research, product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

During the three months ended March 31, 2020, there have been no material changes to our contractual obligations and commitments outside the ordinary course of business from those described under the heading “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Contractual Obligations and Commitments” in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2019.

We did not have during the periods presented, and we do not currently have any off-balance sheet arrangements, as defined in the rules and regulations of the SEC.

A description of recently issued accounting pronouncements that may potentially impact our financial position and results of operations is disclosed in Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements appearing elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

As of March 31, 2020, we had cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities of $88.8 million, consisting of cash, corporate bonds, commercial paper, money market accounts and U.S. government debt securities. The primary objectives of our investment activities are to preserve principal, provide liquidity and maximize income without significantly increasing risk. Our primary exposure to market risk is interest income sensitivity, which is affected by changes in the general level of U.S. interest rates. If market interest rates were to increase immediately and uniformly by 50 basis points, from levels as of March 31, 2020, the net fair value of our interest sensitive marketable securities would hypothetically decline by less than $0.1 million. As we incur research expenses in foreign countries, we face exposure to movements in foreign currency exchange rates, primarily the Euro, British Pound and Australian dollar against the U.S. dollar. Historically, foreign currency fluctuations have not had a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

Our management, with the participation of our Chief Executive Officer and Interim Chief Financial Officer (our principal executive officer and principal financial officer, respectively), evaluated the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as of March 31, 2020. The term “disclosure controls and procedures,” as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, means controls and other procedures of a company that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is recorded, processed, summarized and reported, within the time periods specified in the SEC’s rules and forms. Disclosure controls and procedures include, without limitation, controls and procedures designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to the company’s management, including its principal executive and principal financial officers, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure. Management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving their objectives and management necessarily applies its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures. Based on the evaluation of our disclosure controls and procedures as of March 31, 2020, our Chief Executive Officer and Interim Chief Financial Officer concluded that, as of such date, our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level.

No change in our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(d) and 15d-15(d) under the Exchange Act) occurred during the three months ended March 31, 2020 that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

Careful consideration should be given to the following risk factors, in addition to the other information set forth in this Quarterly Report, including the section of this Quarterly Report titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our consolidated financial statements and related notes, and in other documents that we file with the SEC, in evaluating our company and our business. Investing in our securities involves a high degree of risk. If any of the events described in the following risk factors actually occur, our business, financial condition, results of operations and future growth prospects could be materially and adversely affected and the trading price of our securities could decline. Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated in the forward-looking statements as a result of factors that are described below and elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

The outbreak of the novel strain of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19, could adversely impact our business, including our preclinical studies and clinical trials.

Public health crises such as pandemics or similar outbreaks could adversely impact our business. In December 2019, a novel strain of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), surfaced in Wuhan, China. Since then, COVID-19 has spread to multiple countries, including the United States. In response to the spread of COVID-19, we have closed our offices with our administrative employees continuing their work outside of our offices and restricted on-site staff to only those required to execute their job responsibilities.

As a result of the COVID-19 outbreak, or similar pandemics, we have experienced, and may in the future experience, certain disruptions that could materially impact our business, preclinical studies and clinical trials. Such disruptions may include:

These and other factors arising from the COVID-19 pandemic could worsen in countries that are already afflicted with COVID-19, could continue to spread to additional countries, or could return to countries where the pandemic has been partially contained, each of which could further adversely impact our ability to conduct clinical trials and our business generally, and could have a material adverse impact on our business, operations and financial condition and results.

In addition, the trading prices for our common stock and the securities of other biopharmaceutical companies have been highly volatile as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, we may face difficulties raising capital through sales of our common stock or such sales may be on unfavorable terms. The COVID-19 outbreak continues to evolve rapidly. The extent to which the outbreak may impact our business, preclinical studies and clinical trials will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence, such as the ultimate geographic spread of the disease, the duration of the outbreak, travel restrictions and actions to contain the outbreak or treat its impact, such as social distancing and quarantines or lock-downs in the United States and other countries, business closures or business disruptions and the effectiveness of actions taken in the United States and other countries to contain and treat the disease.

We have not generated any revenue from the sale of our products, have a history of losses and expect to incur substantial future losses. The report of our auditor on our consolidated financial statements expresses substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern; if we are unable to obtain additional capital, we may not be able to continue our operations on the scope or scale as currently conducted, and that could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We have not generated any revenue from the sale of our products and have incurred losses in each year since our inception in 2013. Our net loss was $23.3 million and $5.1 million for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019, respectively. All of our product candidates are in development, none have been approved for sale and we may never have a product candidate approved for commercialization.

In accordance with Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2014-15, Disclosure of Uncertainties about an Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern (Subtopic 205-40), we are required to evaluate whether there are conditions and events, considered in the aggregate, that raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern from the issuance date of our financial statements. Based on our current plans, we believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities, together with the committed funding from our existing BARDA contract and other non-dilutive funding commitments, will not be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements, as currently planned, for more than one year beyond the filing date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q. Specifically, we believe these funds will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2021, including through the filing of an NDA for tebipenem HBr. Because these funds will not be sufficient to fund our operations as currently planned for more than one year beyond the filing date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, we have determined that there is substantial doubt regarding our ability to continue as a going concern. Our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2019 were prepared under the assumption that we will continue as a going concern for the next twelve months. As a result, the opinion from our independent registered public accounting firm with respect to our annual financial statements contains an explanatory paragraph about such substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. Our ability to continue as a going concern is dependent upon our ability to obtain additional equity or debt financing, attain further operating efficiencies, reduce expenditures, and, ultimately, to generate revenue. The financial statements do not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome of this uncertainty. The substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern may adversely affect our stock price and our ability to raise capital. There is no assurance that we will be successful in obtaining sufficient funding on acceptable terms, if at all, and we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate some or all of our research and development programs, product portfolio expansion or commercialization efforts, which could materially adversely affect our business prospects or our ability to continue operations.

We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future; if we are unable to achieve commercialization, revenue from product sales, and, ultimately, profitability, the market value of our common stock will likely decline.

We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future as we continue to advance our product candidates through preclinical and clinical development and seek marketing approval for such candidates if clinical trials are successful. Our expenses will also increase substantially if and as we:

If our product candidates fail to demonstrate safety and efficacy in clinical trials, do not gain regulatory approval, or do not achieve market acceptance following regulatory approval and commercialization, we may never become profitable. Even if we achieve profitability in the future, we may not be able to sustain profitability in subsequent periods. Our prior losses, combined with expected future losses, have had and will continue to have an adverse effect on our stockholders’ equity and working capital. If we are unable to achieve and sustain profitability, the market value of our common stock will likely decline.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with developing biopharmaceutical products, we are unable to predict the extent of any future losses or when, if ever, we will become profitable. Our expenses could increase if we are required by the FDA, or any comparable foreign regulatory authority to perform studies in addition to those currently expected, or if there are any delays in completing our clinical trials or the development of any of our product candidates.

We expect that we will need substantial additional funding. If we are unable to raise capital when needed, or do not receive payment under our government awards, we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization efforts.

Developing pharmaceutical products, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete. We expect that our expenses will increase substantially as we commence and advance our ongoing and planned clinical trials and other studies of tebipenem HBr, SPR720 and SPR206, seek marketing approval for tebipenem HBr if clinical trials are successful, and evaluate the advancement of our other product candidates. If we obtain marketing approval for tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product sales, marketing, distribution and manufacturing. Some of these expenses may be incurred in advance of marketing approval and could be substantial. Accordingly, we will be required to obtain further funding through public or private equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations, licensing arrangements, government funding or other sources. Adequate additional financing may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. Our failure to raise capital as and when needed would have a negative effect on our financial condition and our ability to pursue our business strategy.

We believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities, together with the committed funding from our existing BARDA contract and other non-dilutive funding commitments, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2021, including through the filing of an NDA for tebipenem HBr. Our cash forecasts are based on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. Changing circumstances could cause us to consume capital significantly faster than we currently anticipate, and we may need to spend more than currently expected because of circumstances beyond our control. Our future funding requirements, both short-term and long-term, will depend on many factors, including:

As of March 31, 2020, our non-dilutive sources of funding consisted of an award from BARDA for tebipenem HBr, an award from NIAID under its Small Business Innovation Research program or SBIR, for our SPR720 program, an award from NIAID for SPR206, an award from the DoD that provides partial funding for the development of our Potentiator Platform product candidates and an award from the DoD Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs, or CDMRP, Joint Warfighter Medical Research Program for SPR206.

The BARDA award provides total reimbursement to us of $46.8 million for qualified expenses for tebipenem HBr development over a five-year period through November 2021. The award initially committed funding of $15.7 million over a three-year base period from July 2018 to June 2021 for cUTI development activities. In May 2019, the contract was modified to include additional funding of $2.5 million for tebipenem HBr, increasing the amount of initial committed funding from $15.7 million to $18.1 million. In February 2020, BARDA exercised its first option under the contract, committing $15.9 million for tebipenem HBr through November 2021. Total committed funding under the BARDA award to date is $34.1 million, including the first option exercised in 2020. There is a second option exercisable by BARDA for the remaining $12.7 million of funding, subject to specified milestones being achieved under the award agreement. As part of our tebipenem HBr collaboration with BARDA described above, there will be studies assessing the efficacy of tebipenem HBr in treatment of infections caused by biodefense threats such as anthrax, plague, and melioidosis, including a clinical trial in pneumonia patients. The Defense Threat Reduction Agency, or DTRA, will provide up to $10.0 million in addition to the total potential $46.8 million from BARDA, to cover the cost of the nonclinical biodefense aspects of the collaboration program. While such funding would be for the purpose of developing tebipenem HBr in these areas, we will not receive any funds from DTRA. Upon these achievements, BARDA may exercise its second option to fund a Phase 2 clinical trial in community-acquired bacterial pneumonia patients to demonstrate safety and data suggestive of efficacy.

The NIAID contract for SPR206 provides for total development funding of up to $6.5 million over a base period and three option periods. To date, funding for the base period and the first two option periods totaling $5.9 million have been committed. The NIAID SBIR award is structured as a base period followed by a single option. For the base period of March 1, 2017 through February 28, 2018, NIAID committed funding of approximately $0.6 million for the SPR720 program. In February 2018 NIAID exercised the approximately $0.4 million option, which had an initial a period of performance from March 1, 2018 through February 28, 2019. In January 2019, the period of performance for this award was extended for an additional 12-month period. Our DoD cooperative agreement is structured as a single, two-year $1.5 million award. We are eligible for the full funding from the DoD and there are no options to be exercised at a later date. The NIAID award is subject to termination for convenience at any time by NIAID. NIAID is not obligated to provide funding to us beyond the base period amounts from Congressionally approved annual appropriations. The DoD CDMRP award commits funding of $5.9 million over a four-year period to cover the costs of select Phase 1 pharmacology studies, 28-day GLP non-human primate toxicology study and microbiological surveillance studies that would be required for a potential NDA submission with the FDA for SPR206.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our stockholders, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our technologies or product candidates.

Unless and until we can generate a substantial amount of revenue from our product candidates, we expect to finance our future cash needs through public or private equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations, licensing arrangements and government funding arrangements. In addition, we may seek additional capital due to favorable market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe that we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. We filed a universal shelf registration statement on Form S-3 (Registration No. 333-228661) with the SEC, which was declared effective on December 11, 2018 and pursuant to which we registered for sale up to $200.0 million of any combination of our common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants, rights and/or units from time to time and at prices and on terms that we may determine, including up to $50.0 million of our common stock available for issuance pursuant to an at-the-market offering program sales agreement that we entered into with Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., or Cantor. Under the sales agreement, Cantor may sell shares of our common stock by any method permitted by law deemed to be an “at the market” offering as defined in Rule 415 of the Securities Act, subject to the terms of the sales agreement.

On June 12, 2019, we entered into a securities purchase agreement with Novo Holdings A/S, or Novo, to sell up to an aggregate of $10.0 million of our common stock in two closings pursuant to our effective registration statement on Form S-3 (Registration No. 333-228661). The initial closing occurred on June 14, 2019 and consisted of 465,983 shares of common stock sold at a price of $10.73 per share for gross proceeds of approximately $5.0 million, prior to deducting offering expenses. The second closing occurred on October 18, 2019 and consisted of 465,116 shares of common stock sold at a price of $10.75 per share for gross proceeds of approximately $5.0 million, prior to deducting offering expenses.

We may seek to raise additional capital at any time. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of common stock, convertible securities or other equity securities, the ownership interest of our then existing stockholders may be materially diluted, and the terms of these securities could include liquidation or other preferences and anti-dilution protections that could adversely affect the rights of our stockholders. In addition, debt financing, if available, would result in increased fixed payment

obligations and may involve agreements that include restrictive covenants that limit our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends, which could adversely affect our ability to conduct our business. In addition, securing additional financing would require a substantial amount of time and attention from our management and may divert a disproportionate amount of their attention away from day-to-day activities, which may adversely affect our management’s ability to oversee the development of our product candidates.

If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic alliances or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us.

As of December 31, 2019, we had U.S. federal, state and foreign net operating loss carryforwards, or NOLs, of $156.8 million, $157.8 million and $7.7 million, respectively. The federal NOLs of $73.0 million will expire at various dates from 2033 to 2037 and approximately $83.8 million can be carried forward indefinitely. The state NOLs begin to expire in 2033 and will expire at various dates through 2039. The foreign NOLs do not expire. Utilization of these NOLs depends on many factors, including our future income, which cannot be assured. These NOLs could expire unused and be unavailable to offset our future income tax liabilities. In addition, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, and corresponding provisions of state law, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” which is generally defined as a greater than 50% change, by value, in its equity ownership by 5% stockholders over a three-year period, the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOLs and other pre-change tax attributes to offset its post-change income may be limited. We have not determined if we have experienced Section 382 ownership changes in the past and if a portion of our NOLs is subject to an annual limitation under Section 382. In addition, we may experience ownership changes in the future as a result of subsequent changes in our stock ownership, some of which may be outside of our control. If we determine that an ownership change has occurred and our ability to use our historical NOLs is materially limited, it would harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations.

Under recently enacted U.S. federal tax legislation, although the treatment of net operating loss carryforwards arising in tax years beginning on or before December 31, 2017 has generally not changed, net operating loss carryforwards arising in tax years beginning after December 31, 2017 may be used to offset only 80% of taxable income. In addition, net operating losses arising in tax years beginning after December 31, 2017 may be carried forward indefinitely, as opposed to the 20-year carryforward under prior law.

We have a limited operating history and no history of commercializing pharmaceutical products, which may make it difficult to evaluate the prospects for our future viability.

We were established in 2013 and began operations in 2014. Our operations to date have been limited to financing and staffing our company, developing our technology and developing tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates. We have not yet demonstrated an ability to successfully complete a large-scale, pivotal clinical trial, obtain marketing approval, manufacture a commercial scale product, or arrange for a third party to do so on our behalf, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful product commercialization. Consequently, predictions about our future success or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history or a history of successfully developing and commercializing pharmaceutical products.

We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other known or unknown factors in achieving our business objectives. We will eventually need to transition from a company with a development focus to a company capable of supporting commercial activities. We may not be successful in such a transition.

We expect our financial condition and operating results to continue to fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year due to a variety of factors, many of which are beyond our control. Accordingly, stockholders should not rely upon the results of any quarterly or annual periods as indications of future operating performance.

We are heavily dependent on the success of tebipenem HBr, which is still under development, and our ability to develop, obtain marketing approval for and successfully commercialize tebipenem HBr. If we are unable to develop, obtain marketing approval for and successfully commercialize tebipenem HBr, or if we experience significant delays in doing so, our business could be materially harmed.

We currently have no products approved for sale and have invested a significant portion of our efforts and financial resources in the development of tebipenem HBr as a product candidate for the treatment of MDR bacterial infections. Our near-term prospects are substantially dependent on our ability to develop, obtain marketing approval for and successfully commercialize tebipenem HBr. The success of tebipenem HBr will depend on several factors, including the following:

Successful development of tebipenem HBr for any additional indications would be subject to these same risks.

Many of these factors are beyond our control, including clinical development, the regulatory submission process, potential threats to our intellectual property rights and the manufacturing, marketing and sales efforts of any future collaborator. If we are unable to develop, receive marketing approval for, or successfully commercialize tebipenem HBr, or if we experience delays as a result of any of these factors or otherwise, our business could be materially harmed. Even if we successfully obtain regulatory approvals to manufacture and market tebipenem HBr, our revenues will be dependent, in part, upon the size of the markets in the territories for which we gain regulatory approval and have commercial rights. If the markets for patient subsets that we are targeting are not as significant as we estimate, we may not generate significant revenues from sales of such product, if approved.

As a company, we have never obtained regulatory approval for, or commercialized, a drug. It is possible that the FDA may refuse to accept any or all of our planned new drug applications, or NDAs, for substantive review or may conclude after review of our data that our application is insufficient to obtain regulatory approval for any current or future product candidates. If the FDA does not approve any of our planned NDAs, it may require that we conduct additional costly clinical, nonclinical or manufacturing validation studies before it will reconsider our applications. Depending on the extent of these or any other FDA-required studies, approval of any NDA or other application that we submit may be significantly delayed, possibly for several years, or may require us to expend more resources than we have available. Any failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approvals would prevent us from commercializing tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates for which we may seek regulatory approval, generating revenues and achieving and sustaining profitability. It is also possible that additional studies, if performed and completed, may not be considered sufficient by the FDA to approve any NDA or other application that we submit. If any of these outcomes occur, we may be forced to abandon the development of our product candidates, which would materially adversely affect our business and could potentially cause us to cease operations. We face similar risks for our applications in foreign jurisdictions.

If clinical trials of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate that we may advance to clinical trials fail to demonstrate safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities or do not otherwise produce favorable results, we may incur additional costs or experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate.

We may not commercialize, market, promote or sell any product candidate in the United States without obtaining marketing approval from the FDA or in other countries without obtaining approvals from comparable foreign regulatory authorities, such as the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, and we may never receive such approvals. We must complete extensive preclinical development and clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of our product candidates in humans before we will be able to obtain these approvals. Clinical testing is expensive, difficult to design and implement, can take many years to complete and is inherently uncertain as to outcome. We have not previously submitted an NDA to the FDA or similar applications to comparable foreign regulatory authorities for any of our product candidates.

The clinical development of tebipenem HBr and any of our other product candidates is susceptible to the risk of failure inherent at any stage of drug development, including failure to demonstrate efficacy in a trial or across a broad population of patients, the occurrence of severe adverse events, failure to comply with protocols or applicable regulatory requirements, and determination by the FDA or any comparable foreign regulatory authority that a drug product is not approvable. A number of companies in the pharmaceutical industry, including biotechnology companies, have suffered significant setbacks in clinical trials, even after promising results in earlier nonclinical studies or clinical trials. The results of preclinical and other nonclinical studies and/or early clinical trials

of our product candidates may not be predictive of the results of later-stage clinical trials. Notwithstanding any promising results in early nonclinical studies or clinical trials, we cannot be certain that we will not face similar setbacks. For example, although tebipenem HBr is a new formulation of the active pharmaceutical ingredient tebipenem that exhibited a favorable safety and efficacy profile during clinical trials conducted by Meiji and a global pharmaceutical company, which we refer to as Global Pharma, in Japan, we may nonetheless fail to achieve success in our clinical trials. Even if our clinical trials are completed, the results may not be sufficient to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates.

In addition, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses. Many companies that believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval for the product candidates. Even if we believe that the results of our clinical trials warrant marketing approval, the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may disagree and may not grant marketing approval of our product candidates.

In some instances, there can be significant variability in safety and/or efficacy results between different trials of the same product candidate due to numerous factors, including changes in trial procedures set forth in protocols, differences in the size and type of the patient populations, adherence to the dosing regimen and other trial protocols and the rate of dropout among clinical trial participants, among others. It is possible that even if one or more of our product candidates has a beneficial effect, that effect will not be detected during clinical evaluation as a result of one of the factors listed or otherwise. Conversely, as a result of the same factors, our clinical trials may indicate an apparent positive effect of a product candidate that is greater than the actual positive effect, if any. Similarly, in our clinical trials, we may fail to detect toxicity of or intolerability of our product candidates or may determine that our product candidates are toxic or not well tolerated when that is not in fact the case. In the case of our clinical trials, results may differ on the basis of the type of bacteria with which patients are infected. We cannot make assurances that any clinical trials that we may conduct will demonstrate consistent or adequate efficacy and safety to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates.

We may encounter unforeseen events prior to, during, or as a result of, clinical trials that could delay or prevent us from obtaining regulatory approval for tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates, including:

We could also encounter delays if a clinical trial is suspended or terminated by us, by the institutional review boards, or IRBs, of the institutions in which such trials are being conducted, by the Data Safety Monitoring Board, or DSMB, if any, for such trial or by the FDA or other regulatory authorities. Such authorities may suspend or terminate a clinical trial due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from using a drug or changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions.

If we are required to conduct additional clinical trials or other testing of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate beyond the trials and testing that we contemplate, if we are unable to successfully complete clinical trials or other testing of our product candidates, if the results of these trials or tests are unfavorable or are only modestly favorable or if there are safety concerns associated with tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate, we may:

Our failure to successfully initiate and complete clinical trials of our product candidates and to demonstrate the efficacy and safety necessary to obtain regulatory approval to market any of our product candidates would significantly harm our business. Our product candidate development costs will also increase if we experience delays in testing or marketing approvals and we may be required to obtain additional funds to complete clinical trials. We cannot make assurances that our clinical trials will begin as planned or be completed on schedule, if at all, or that we will not need to restructure our trials after they have begun. Significant clinical trial delays also could shorten any periods during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates or allow our competitors to bring products to market before we do and impair our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates, which may harm our business and results of operations. In addition, many of the factors that cause, or lead to, delays of clinical trials may ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate.

If we experience delays or difficulties in the enrollment of patients in clinical trials, clinical development activities could be delayed or otherwise adversely affected.

The timely completion of clinical trials in accordance with their protocols depends, among other things, on our ability to enroll a sufficient number of patients who remain in the study until its conclusion. We may not be able to initiate, continue or complete clinical trials of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate that we develop if we are unable to locate and enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in clinical trials as required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, such as the EMA. Patient enrollment is a significant factor in the timing of clinical trials, and is affected by many factors, including:

The inclusion and exclusion criteria for our ongoing Phase 3 clinical trial of tebipenem HBr may adversely affect our enrollment rates for patients in these trials. In addition, many of our competitors also have ongoing clinical trials for product candidates that would treat the same indications as we contemplate for tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates, and patients who would otherwise be eligible for any clinical trials we may conduct for such product candidates may instead enroll in clinical trials of our competitors’ product candidates.

Our inability to enroll a sufficient number of patients for our clinical trials would result in significant delays or might require us to abandon one or more clinical trials altogether. Enrollment delays in our clinical trials may result in increased development costs for our product candidates, slow down or halt our product candidate development and approval process and jeopardize our ability to seek and obtain the marketing approval required to commence product sales and generate revenue, which would cause the value of our company to decline and limit our ability to obtain additional financing if needed.

Our clinical program for tebipenem HBr is subject to a number of specific risks that may affect the outcome of the trial, including the use of a new formulation of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, tebipenem.

Our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial of tebipenem HBr is subject to a number of specific risks arising from our clinical program and the design of the trial. We have not conducted a clinical trial of tebipenem HBr in patients with cUTI, who will be the subjects of the clinical trial, and we have no direct clinical evidence that tebipenem HBr is effective in treating cUTIs in humans. Although we believe that tebipenem HBr has the potential to treat cUTI in humans based on the results of our nonclinical in vitro and in vivo animal model studies, together with Meiji’s and Global Pharma’s Phase 2 clinical trial results, these results are not necessarily predictive of the results of our planned clinical trials and we cannot guarantee that tebipenem HBr will demonstrate the expected efficacy in our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial patients. We also cannot guarantee that the projections made from the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic models that we developed from our nonclinical and clinical tebipenem HBr studies will be validated in our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial.

To support our accelerated clinical development strategy for tebipenem HBr, we are relying, in part, on clinical data from two exploratory Phase 2 clinical trials conducted by Meiji (ME1211) and Global Pharma (L-084 04) in Japan, which were not conducted in accordance with FDA guidance for clinical trials in patients with cUTI. To the extent that these clinical trial design differences limit our use of the clinical data, our proposed clinical trial plan for tebipenem HBr with the FDA could be materially delayed and we may incur material additional costs.

There are significant differences in the trial design for the two exploratory Phase 2 clinical trials conducted by Meiji and its partner in Japan compared to the clinical trial design described by the FDA in its guidance for clinical trials in patients with cUTI, including:

If our pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial of tebipenem HBr does not yield data that confirm the clinical and microbiological efficacy of tebipenem HBr as suggested by the results from the Phase 2 clinical trials conducted by Meiji and its partner, then our clinical pathway for tebipenem HBr could be delayed and our business could be materially harmed.

Preliminary or interim data from our clinical studies that we announce or publish from time to time, including preliminary data from our Phase 1 clinical trial of tebipenem HBr and our dose-selection findings, may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

We currently have no products approved for sale and we cannot guarantee that we will ever have marketable products. Clinical failure can occur at any stage of clinical development. Clinical trials may produce negative or inconclusive results, and we or any future collaborators may decide, or regulators may require us, to conduct additional clinical trials or preclinical studies. We will be

required to demonstrate with substantial evidence through well-controlled clinical trials that our product candidates are safe and effective for use in a diverse population before we can seek marketing approvals for their commercial sale. Success in preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials does not mean that future larger registration clinical trials will be successful. This is because product candidates in later-stage clinical trials may fail to demonstrate sufficient safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities despite having progressed through preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials.

Preliminary or interim data from our clinical studies are not necessarily predictive of final data. Preliminary and interim data are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change, as more patient data become available and we issue our final clinical study report. Preliminary or interim data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data we previously published. As a result, interim and preliminary data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. Adverse differences between preliminary or interim data and final data could affect our planned clinical path for tebipenem HBr, including potentially increasing cost and/or causing delay in such development.

In some instances, there can be significant variability in safety and efficacy results between different clinical trials of the same product candidate due to numerous factors, including changes in trial protocols, differences in size and type of the patient populations, differences in and adherence to the dosing regimen and other trial protocols and the rate of dropout among clinical trial participants. We therefore do not know whether any clinical trials we may conduct will demonstrate consistent or adequate efficacy and safety sufficient to obtain marketing approval to market our product candidates.

Serious adverse events or undesirable side effects or other unexpected properties of tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate may be identified during development or after approval that could delay, prevent or cause the withdrawal of regulatory approval, limit the commercial potential, or result in significant negative consequences following marketing approval.

Serious adverse events or undesirable side effects caused by, or other unexpected properties of, our product candidates could cause us, an institutional review board, or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt our clinical trials and could result in a more restrictive label, the imposition of distribution or use restrictions or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. If tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates is associated with serious or unexpected adverse events or undesirable side effects, the FDA, the IRBs at the institutions in which our studies are conducted, or a DSMB, could suspend or terminate our clinical trials or the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease clinical trials or deny approval of our product candidates for any or all targeted indications. Treatment-related side effects could also affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition and prospects significantly.

While the active pharmaceutical ingredient in tebipenem HBr, tebipenem, is approved in Japan, our formulation of tebipenem, tebipenem HBr, has not yet been tested in patients. There may be unforeseen serious adverse events or side effects that differ from those seen in the Japanese studies. To date, patients treated with the active ingredient in tebipenem HBr have experienced drug-related side effects including diarrhea, temporary increases in hepatic enzymes, allergic reactions, rashes and convulsions. To date, tebipenem HBr has generally been well tolerated in clinical trials conducted in healthy subjects and there have been no reports of serious adverse events related to tebipenem HBr, but additional adverse events may emerge in any subsequent clinical trials.

If unexpected adverse events occur in any of our ongoing or planned clinical trials, we may need to abandon development of our product candidates, or limit development to lower doses or to certain uses or subpopulations in which the undesirable side effects or other unfavorable characteristics are less prevalent, less severe or more acceptable from a risk-benefit perspective. Many compounds that initially showed promise in clinical or earlier stage testing are later found to cause undesirable or unexpected side effects that prevented further development of the compound.

Undesirable side effects or other unexpected adverse events or properties of tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates could arise or become known either during clinical development or, if approved, after the approved product has been marketed. If such an event occurs during development, our trials could be suspended or terminated and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease further development of, or could deny approval of, tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates. If such an event occurs after such product candidates are approved, a number of potentially significant negative consequences may result, including:

We believe that any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the affected product candidate, if approved, or could substantially increase commercialization costs and expenses, which could delay or prevent us from generating revenue from the sale of our products and harm our business and results of operations.

Even if a product candidate does obtain regulatory approval, it may never achieve the market acceptance by physicians, patients, hospitals, third-party payors and others in the medical community that is necessary for commercial success and the market opportunity may be smaller than we estimate.

Even if we obtain FDA or other regulatory approvals and are able to launch tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate commercially, the approved product candidate may nonetheless fail to gain sufficient market acceptance among physicians, patients, hospitals (including pharmacy directors) and third-party payors and, ultimately, may not be commercially successful. For example, physicians are often reluctant to switch their patients from existing therapies even when new and potentially more effective or convenient treatments enter the market. Further, patients often acclimate to the therapy that they are currently taking and do not want to switch unless their physicians recommend switching products or they are required to switch therapies due to lack of coverage and reimbursement for existing therapies. If an approved product candidate does not achieve an adequate level of acceptance, we may not generate significant product revenues or any profits from operations. The degree of market acceptance of any product candidate for which we receive approval depends on a number of factors, including:

Any failure by tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate that obtains regulatory approval to achieve market acceptance or commercial success would adversely affect our business prospects.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we intend to focus on developing product candidates for specific indications that we identify as most likely to succeed, in terms of both their potential for marketing approval and commercialization. As a result, we may forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or for other indications that may prove to have greater commercial potential.

Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future research and development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable product candidates. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to the product candidate.

If we are unable to establish sales, marketing and distribution capabilities or enter into sales, marketing and distribution agreements with third parties, we may not be successful in commercializing tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate if such product candidate is approved.

We do not have a sales, marketing or distribution infrastructure and we have no experience in the sale, marketing or distribution of pharmaceutical products. To achieve commercial success for any approved product, we must either develop a sales and marketing organization or outsource those functions to third parties. We intend to build a commercial organization in the United States and recruit experienced sales, marketing and distribution professionals. The development of sales, marketing and distribution capabilities will require substantial resources, will be time-consuming and could delay any product launch. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing and distribution capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization costs. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel. In addition, we may not be able to hire a sales force in the United States that is sufficient in size or has adequate expertise in the medical markets that we intend to target. If we are unable to establish a sales force and marketing and distribution capabilities, our operating results may be adversely affected.

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize our products on our own include:

We intend to use collaborators to assist with the commercialization of tebipenem HBr and any other product candidate outside the United States. As a result of entering into arrangements with third parties to perform sales, marketing and distribution services, our product revenues or the profitability of these product revenues to us would likely be lower than if we were to directly market and sell products in those markets. Furthermore, we may be unsuccessful in entering into the necessary arrangements with third parties or may be unable to do so on terms that are favorable to us. In addition, we likely would have little control over such third parties, and any of them might fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our products effectively.

If we do not establish sales and marketing capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

We face substantial competition from other pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and our operating results may suffer if we fail to compete effectively.

The development and commercialization of new drug products is highly competitive. We face competition from major pharmaceutical companies, specialty pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies worldwide with respect to tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates that we may seek to develop and commercialize in the future. There are a number of large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies that currently market and sell products or are pursuing the development of product candidates for the treatment of resistant infections. Potential competitors also include academic institutions, government agencies and other public and private research organizations. Our competitors may succeed in developing, acquiring or licensing technologies and drug products that are more effective or less costly than tebipenem HBr or any other product candidates that we are currently developing or that we may develop, which could render our product candidates obsolete and noncompetitive.

There are a variety of available oral therapies marketed for the treatment urinary tract infections that we would expect would compete with tebipenem HBr, such as Levaquin, Cipro and Bactrim. Many of the available therapies are well established and widely accepted by physicians, patients and third-party payors. Insurers and other third-party payors may also encourage the use of generic products, for example in the fluoroquinolone class. However, the susceptibility of urinary tract pathogens to the existing treatment alternatives is waning. If tebipenem HBr is approved, the pricing may be at a significant premium over other competitive products. This may make it difficult for tebipenem HBr to compete with these products.

There are also a number of oral product candidates in clinical development by third parties that are intended to treat UTIs. Some mid- to late-stage product candidates include ceftibuten/clavulanate, or C-Scape from Cipla Therapeutics, Inc., and sulopenem from Iterum Therapeutics Limited. If our competitors obtain marketing approval from the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities for their product candidates more rapidly than us, it could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market.

There are several IV-administered products marketed for the treatment of infections resistant to first-line therapy for Gram-negative infections, including ceftazidime-avibactam, or Avycaz, from Allergan plc and Pfizer Inc., ceftolozane-tazobactam, or Zerbaxa, from Merck & Co., imipenem/cilastatin and relebactam, or Recarbrio, from Merck & Co., plazomicin, or Zemdri, from Cipla Therapeutics, Inc., cefiderocol, or Fetroja, from Shionogi & Co. Ltd., eravacycline, or Xerava, from Tetraphase Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and meropenem-vaborbactam, or Vabomere, from Melinta Therapeutics, Inc.

Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller and other early stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These third parties compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel, establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.

In July 2012, the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act was passed, which included the Generating Antibiotics Incentives Now Act, or the GAIN Act. The GAIN Act is intended to provide incentives for the development of new, qualified infectious disease products. In December 2016, the Cures Act was passed, providing additional support for the development of new infectious disease products. These incentives may result in more competition in the market for new antibiotics, and may cause pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies with more resources than we have to shift their efforts towards the development of product candidates that could be competitive with tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates.

Even if we are able to commercialize tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate, the product may become subject to unfavorable pricing regulations, or third-party payor coverage and reimbursement policies that could harm our business.

Marketing approvals, pricing, coverage and reimbursement for new drug products vary widely from country to country. Some countries require approval of the sale price of a drug before it can be marketed. In many countries, the pricing review period begins after marketing or product licensing approval is granted. In some foreign markets, prescription pharmaceutical pricing remains subject to continuing governmental control even after initial approval is granted. As a result, we might obtain marketing approval for a product in a particular country, but then be subject to price regulations that delay our commercial launch of the product, possibly for lengthy time periods, which may negatively affect the revenues that we are able to generate from the sale of the product in that country. Adverse pricing limitations may hinder our ability to recoup our investment in one or more product candidates, even if our product candidates obtain marketing approval.

We currently expect that some of our product candidates, if approved, will be administered in a hospital inpatient setting. In the United States, governmental and other third-party payors generally reimburse hospitals a single bundled payment established on a prospective basis intended to cover all items and services provided to the patient during a single hospitalization. Hospitals bill third-party payors for all, or a portion of the fees associated with the patient’s hospitalization and bill patients for any deductibles or co-payments. Because there is typically no separate reimbursement for drugs administered in a hospital inpatient setting, some of our target customers may be unwilling to adopt our product candidates in light of the additional associated cost. If we are forced to lower the price we charge for our product candidates, if approved, our gross margins may decrease, which would adversely affect our ability to invest in and grow our business.

To the extent tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate we develop is used in an outpatient setting, the commercial success of our product candidates will depend substantially, both domestically and abroad, on the extent to which coverage and reimbursement for these products and related treatments are available from government health programs and third-party payors. If coverage is not available, or reimbursement is limited, we may not be able to successfully commercialize our product candidates. Even if coverage is provided, the approved reimbursement amount may not be high enough to allow us to establish or maintain pricing sufficient to realize a sufficient return on our investments. Government authorities and third-party payors, such as health insurers and managed care organizations, publish formularies that identify the medications they will cover and the related payment levels. The healthcare industry is focused on cost containment, both in the United States and elsewhere. Government authorities and third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for particular medications, which could affect our ability to sell our product candidates profitably.

Increasingly, third-party payors are requiring higher levels of evidence of the benefits and clinical outcomes of new technologies and are challenging the prices charged. We cannot be sure that coverage will be available for tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate that we commercialize and, if available, that the reimbursement rates will be adequate. Further, the net reimbursement for outpatient drug products may be subject to additional reductions if there are changes to laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the United States. An inability to promptly obtain coverage and adequate payment rates from both government-funded and private payors for any approved products used on an outpatient basis that we develop could have a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

We cannot predict whether bacteria may develop resistance to tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates, which could affect their revenue potential.

We are developing tebipenem HBr and certain of our other product candidates to treat drug-resistant bacterial infections. The bacteria responsible for these infections evolve quickly and readily transfer their resistance mechanisms within and between species. We cannot predict whether or when bacterial resistance to tebipenem HBr or any of such other product candidates may develop.

As a carbapenem, tebipenem HBr is not active against organisms expressing a resistance mechanism mediated by enzymes known as carbapenemases. Although occurrence of this resistance mechanism is currently rare, we cannot predict whether carbapenemase-mediated resistance will become widespread in regions where we intend to market tebipenem HBr if it is approved. The growth of drug resistant infections in community settings or in countries with poor public health infrastructures, or the potential use of tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates outside of controlled hospital settings, could contribute to the rise of resistance. If resistance to tebipenem HBr or any of our other product candidates becomes prevalent, our ability to generate revenue from tebipenem HBr or such product candidates could suffer.

If we are not successful in discovering, developing and commercializing additional product candidates, our ability to expand our business and achieve our strategic objectives would be impaired.

Although a substantial amount of our efforts will focus on our ongoing and planned clinical trials and potential approval of our lead product candidate, tebipenem HBr, SPR720 and our Potentiator Platform product candidate, SPR206, a key element of our strategy is to discover, develop and commercialize a portfolio of therapeutics to treat drug resistant bacterial infections. We are seeking to do so through our internal research programs and are exploring, and intend to explore in the future, strategic partnerships for the development of new product candidates.

Research programs to identify product candidates require substantial technical, financial and human resources, whether or not any product candidates are ultimately identified. Our research programs may initially show promise in identifying potential product candidates, yet fail to yield product candidates for clinical development for many reasons, including the following:

If we are unsuccessful in identifying and developing additional product candidates, our potential for growth may be impaired.

Product liability lawsuits against us could divert our resources, cause us to incur substantial liabilities and limit commercialization of any products that we may develop.

We face an inherent risk of product liability claims as a result of the clinical testing of our product candidates despite obtaining appropriate informed consents from our clinical trial participants. We will face an even greater risk if we obtain marketing approval for and commercially sell tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate. For example, we may be sued if any product that we develop allegedly causes injury or is found to be otherwise unsuitable during clinical testing, manufacturing, marketing or sale. Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product, negligence, strict liability or a breach of warranties. Claims could also be asserted under state consumer protection acts. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against product liability claims, we may incur substantial liabilities or be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

Although we maintain general liability insurance and clinical trial liability insurance, this insurance may not fully cover potential liabilities that we may incur. The cost of any product liability litigation or other proceeding, even if resolved in our favor, could be substantial. We will need to increase our insurance coverage if and when we receive marketing approval for and begin selling tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate. In addition, insurance coverage is becoming increasingly expensive. If we are unable to obtain or maintain sufficient insurance coverage at an acceptable cost or to otherwise protect against potential product liability claims, it could prevent or inhibit the development and commercial production and sale of our product candidates, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. From time to time and in the future, our operations may involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials, and may also produce hazardous waste products. Even if we contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes, we cannot completely eliminate the risk of contamination or injury resulting from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from our use of hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties for failure to comply with such laws and regulations.

We maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses that we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, but this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. Moreover, we do not currently maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. Current or future environmental laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects. In addition, failure to comply with these laws and regulations may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Our internal computer systems, or those of our contract research organizations or other contractors or consultants, may fail or suffer security breaches, which could result in a material disruption of our product development programs, and could subject us to liability.

We utilize information technology systems and networks to process, transmit and store electronic information in connection with our business activities. As the use of digital technologies has increased, cyber incidents, including deliberate attacks and attempts to gain unauthorized access to computer systems and networks, have increased in frequency and sophistication. These threats pose a risk to the security of our systems and networks and the confidentiality, availability and integrity of our data. There can be no assurance that we will be successful in preventing cyber-attacks or successfully mitigating their effects.

Despite the implementation of security measures, our internal computer systems and those of our contract research organizations and other contractors and consultants are vulnerable to damage or disruption from hacking, computer viruses, software bugs, unauthorized access, natural disasters, terrorism, war, and telecommunication, equipment and electrical failures. While we have not, to our knowledge, experienced any significant system failure, accident or security breach to date, if such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations or the operations of those third parties with which we contract, it could result in a material disruption of our programs and our business operations. For example, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or ongoing clinical trials for any of our product candidates could result in delays in our development and regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. To the extent that any disruption or security breach results in a loss of or damage to our data or applications, or inappropriate disclosure or theft of confidential or proprietary information, we could incur liability, the further development of our product candidates could be delayed, or our competitive position could be compromised.

Any such disruption or security breach, as well as any action by us or our employees or contractors that might be inconsistent with the rapidly evolving data privacy and security laws and regulations applicable within the United States and elsewhere where we conduct business, could result in enforcement actions by U.S. states, the U.S. Federal government or foreign governments, liability or sanctions under data privacy laws that protect personally identifiable information, regulatory penalties, other legal proceedings such as but not limited to private litigation, the incurrence of significant remediation costs, disruptions to our development programs, business operations and collaborations, diversion of management efforts and damage to our reputation, which could harm our business and operations. Because of the rapidly moving nature of technology and the increasing sophistication of cybersecurity threats, our measures to prevent, respond to and minimize such risks may be unsuccessful.

In addition, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted a comprehensive general data privacy regulation, or GDPR, in 2016 to replace the current European Union Data Protection Directive and related country-specific legislation. The GDPR took effect in May 2018 and governs the collection and use of personal data in the European Union. The GDPR, which is wide-ranging in scope, will impose several requirements relating to the consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, the information provided to the individuals, the security and confidentiality of the personal data, data breach notification and the use of third party processors in connection with the processing of the personal data. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the European Union to the United States, enhances enforcement authority and imposes large penalties for noncompliance, including the potential for fines of up to €20 million or 4% of the annual global revenues of the infringer, whichever is greater.

The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR. Compliance with the GDPR has been and will continue to be a rigorous and time-intensive process that has increased and will continue to increase our cost of doing business or require us to change our business practices, and despite those efforts, there is a risk that we or our collaborators may be subject to fines and penalties, litigation and reputational harm in connection with any European activities, which could adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, in June 2018, California enacted the California Consumer Privacy Act, or CCPA, which takes effect on January 1, 2020. The CCPA gives California residents expanded rights to access and require deletion of their personal information, opt out of certain personal information sharing, and receive detailed information about how their personal information is used. The CCPA provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that may increase data breach litigation. Although the CCPA includes exemptions for certain clinical trials data, and HIPAA protected health information, the law may increase our compliance costs and potential liability with respect to other personal information we collect about California residents. The CCPA has prompted a number of proposals for new federal and state privacy legislation that, if passed, could increase our potential liability, increase our compliance costs and adversely affect our business.

We or third parties upon whom we depend may be adversely affected by natural disasters and/or health epidemics, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Natural disasters could severely disrupt our operations and have a material adverse effect on our business operations. If a natural disaster, health epidemic, or other event beyond our control occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our office and/or lab spaces, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. In December 2019, a novel strain of coronavirus was reported to have surfaced in Wuhan, China. In January 2020, this coronavirus spread to other parts of the world, including the United States and Europe, and efforts to contain the spread of this coronavirus intensified. In January 2020, the World Health Organization declared the Coronavirus outbreak a “public health emergency of international concern.” The extent to which the coronavirus impacts our results will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted, including new information which may emerge concerning the severity of the coronavirus and the actions to contain the coronavirus or treat its impact, among others.

Should the coronavirus continue to spread in the United States and Europe, our business operations could be delayed or interrupted. For instance, our clinical trials may suffer from lower than anticipated patient registration or enrollment and we may be forced to temporarily delay or pause ongoing trials. Further, if the spread of the coronavirus continues and our operations are impacted, we risk a delay, default and/or nonperformance under our existing agreements arising from force majeure. If either any of the foregoing were to occur, it could materially adversely affect our financial condition.

We expect to depend on collaborations with third parties for the development and commercialization of some of our product candidates. Our prospects with respect to those product candidates will depend in part on the success of those collaborations.

Although we expect to commercialize tebipenem HBr ourselves in the United States, we intend to commercialize it outside the United States through collaboration arrangements. In addition, we may seek third-party collaborators for development and commercialization of certain of our product candidates. For instance, in January 2019, we entered into a license agreement with Everest Medicines II Limited whereby we granted Everest an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize SPR206, or products containing SPR206, in Greater China, South Korea and certain Southeast Asian countries. Additionally, in June 2019, we entered into a collaboration agreement with the Bill and Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute (the “Gates MRI”) to develop SPR720 for the treatment of lung infections caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Our likely collaborators for any other marketing, distribution, development, licensing or broader collaboration arrangements we may pursue include large and mid-size pharmaceutical companies, regional and national pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies.

We may derive revenue from research and development fees, license fees, milestone payments and royalties under any collaborative arrangement into which we enter. Our ability to generate revenue from these arrangements will depend on our collaborators’ abilities to successfully perform the functions assigned to them in these arrangements. In addition, our collaborators may have the right to abandon research or development projects and terminate applicable agreements, including funding obligations, prior to or upon the expiration of the agreed upon terms. As a result, we can expect to relinquish some or all of the control over the future success of a product candidate that we license to a third party.

We face significant competition in seeking and obtaining appropriate collaborators. Collaborations involving our product candidates may pose a number of risks, including the following:

Collaboration agreements may not lead to development or commercialization of product candidates in the most efficient manner or at all. If a collaborator of ours is involved in a business combination, it could decide to delay, diminish or terminate the development or commercialization of any product candidate licensed to it by us.

We may have to alter our development and commercialization plans if we are not able to establish collaborations.

We will require additional funds to complete the development and potential commercialization of tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates. For some of our product candidates, we may decide to collaborate with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for the development and potential commercialization of those product candidates. Moreover, we intend to utilize a variety of types of collaboration arrangements for the potential commercialization of our product candidates outside the United States. Whether we reach a definitive agreement for a collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. Those factors may include:

The collaborator may also consider alternative product candidates or technologies for similar indications that may be available for collaboration and whether such a collaboration could be more attractive than the one with us for our product candidate. We may also be restricted under future license agreements from entering into agreements on certain terms with potential collaborators. In addition, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators.

If we are unable to reach agreements with suitable collaborators on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all, we may have to curtail the development of a product candidate, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to fund and undertake development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional expertise and additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we fail to enter into collaborations and do not have sufficient funds or expertise to undertake the necessary development and commercialization activities, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates or bring them to market and our business may be materially and adversely affected.

We rely on third parties to conduct all of our preclinical studies and all of our clinical trials. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or meet expected deadlines, we may be unable to obtain regulatory approval for or commercialize any of our product candidates. If they do not perform satisfactorily, our business may be materially harmed.

We do not independently conduct nonclinical studies that comply with GLP requirements. We also do not have the ability to independently conduct clinical trials of any of our product candidates. We rely on third parties, such as contract research organizations, clinical data management organizations, medical institutions and clinical investigators, to conduct our clinical trials of tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates and expect to rely on these third parties to conduct clinical trials of our other product candidates and potential product candidates. Any of these third parties may terminate their engagements with us at any time. If we need to enter into alternative arrangements, it would delay our product development activities and increase our costs.

Our reliance on these third parties for clinical development activities limits our control over these activities but we remain responsible for ensuring that each of our studies is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal, regulatory and scientific standards. For example, notwithstanding the obligations of a contract research organization for a trial of one of our product candidates, we remain responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the general investigational plan and protocols for the trial and applicable regulatory requirements. While we will have agreements governing their activities, we control only certain aspects of their activities and have limited influence over their actual performance. The third parties with whom we contract for execution of our GLP studies and our clinical trials play a significant role in the conduct of these studies and trials and the subsequent collection and analysis of data. Although we rely on these third parties to conduct our GLP-compliant nonclinical studies and clinical trials, we remain responsible for ensuring that each of our nonclinical studies and clinical trials are conducted in accordance with applicable laws and regulations, and our reliance on the CROs does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. The FDA and regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions also require us to comply with standards, commonly referred to as good clinical practices, or GCPs, for conducting, monitoring, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are accurate and that the trial subjects are adequately informed of the potential risks of participating in clinical trials. The FDA enforces these GCPs through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators, clinical trial sites and institutional review boards. If we or our third-party contractors fail to comply with applicable GCP standards, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our product candidates, which would delay the regulatory approval process. We cannot make assurances that, upon inspection, the FDA will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with GCP. We are also required to register clinical trials and post the results of completed clinical trials on a government-sponsored database, ClinicalTrials.gov, within certain timeframes. Failure to do so can result in fines, adverse publicity and civil and criminal sanctions.

Furthermore, the third parties conducting clinical trials on our behalf are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such contractors, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our ongoing development programs. These contractors may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other drug development activities, which could impede their ability to devote appropriate time to our clinical programs. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties, meet expected deadlines or conduct our clinical trials in accordance with regulatory requirements or our stated protocols, we may not be able to obtain, or may be delayed in obtaining, marketing approvals for our product candidates. If that occurs, we may not be able to, or may be delayed in our efforts to, successfully commercialize our product candidates. In such an event, our financial results and the commercial prospects for tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates could be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenue could be delayed, impaired or foreclosed.

We also rely on other third parties to store and distribute drug supplies for our clinical trials. Any performance failure on the part of our distributors could delay clinical development or marketing approval of our product candidates or commercialization of any resulting products, producing additional losses and depriving us of potential product revenue.

We contract with third parties for the manufacture of preclinical and clinical supplies of our product candidates and expect to continue to do so in connection with any future commercialization and for any future clinical trials and commercialization of our other product candidates and potential product candidates. This reliance on third parties increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates or such quantities at an acceptable cost, which could delay, prevent or impair our development or commercialization efforts.

We do not currently have nor do we plan to build the internal infrastructure or capability to manufacture tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates for use in the conduct of our preclinical research, our clinical trials or for commercial supply. We currently rely on and expect to continue to rely on third-party contract manufacturers to manufacture supplies of tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates, and we expect to rely on third-party contract manufacturers to manufacture commercial quantities of any product candidate that we commercialize following approval for marketing by applicable regulatory authorities, if any. Reliance on third-party manufacturers entails risks, including:

We currently rely on a small number of third-party contract manufacturers for all of our required raw materials, drug substance and finished product for our preclinical research and clinical trials. We do not have long-term agreements with any of these third parties. We also do not have any current contractual relationships for the manufacture of commercial supplies of any of our product candidates. If any of our existing manufacturers should become unavailable to us for any reason, we may incur delays in identifying or qualifying replacements.

If any of our product candidates are approved by any regulatory agency, we intend to enter into agreements with third-party contract manufacturers for the commercial production of those products. This process is difficult and time consuming and we may face competition for access to manufacturing facilities as there are a limited number of contract manufacturers operating under cGMPs that are capable of manufacturing our product candidates. Consequently, we may not be able to reach agreement with third-party manufacturers on satisfactory terms, which could delay our commercialization.

Third-party manufacturers are required to comply with cGMPs and similar regulatory requirements outside the United States. Facilities used by our third-party manufacturers must be approved by the FDA after we submit an NDA and before potential approval of the product candidate. Similar regulations apply to manufacturers of our product candidates for use or sale in foreign countries. We do not control the manufacturing process and are completely dependent on our third-party manufacturers for compliance with the applicable regulatory requirements for the manufacture of our product candidates. The inability or failure of our manufacturers to successfully manufacture material that conforms to the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA and any applicable foreign regulatory authority, may require us to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which could result in delays in obtaining approval for the applicable product candidate. In addition, our manufacturers are subject to ongoing periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and corresponding state and foreign agencies for compliance with cGMPs and similar regulatory requirements. Failure by any of our manufacturers to comply with applicable cGMPs or other regulatory requirements could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspensions or withdrawals of approvals, operating restrictions, interruptions in supply and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supplies of our product candidates and have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our current and anticipated future dependence upon others for the manufacture of tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates and potential product candidates may adversely affect our future profit margins and our ability to commercialize any products for which we receive marketing approval on a timely and competitive basis.

If we fail to comply with our obligations in the agreements under which we in-license or acquire development or commercialization rights to products, technology or data from third parties, including those for tebipenem HBr, we could lose such rights that are important to our business.

We are a party to agreements with Meiji for tebipenem HBr, Vertex Pharmaceuticals for SPR720 and PBB Distributions Limited for SPR206, and we may enter into additional agreements, including license agreements, with other parties in the future that impose diligence, development and commercialization timelines, milestone payments, royalties, insurance and other obligations on us.

For example, we have an exclusive know-how license with Meiji, or the Meiji License, that gives us rights outside of specified countries in Asia to develop, manufacture, and commercialize tebipenem HBr as well as the right to use, cross-reference, file or incorporate by reference any information and relevant Meiji regulatory documentation to support any regulatory filings outside of Asia. In addition, we have the right to develop, manufacture and have manufactured tebipenem HBr in Asia solely for the purpose of furthering development, manufacturing and commercialization of tebipenem HBr outside of Asia. In exchange for those rights, we are obligated to satisfy diligence requirements, including using commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize tebipenem HBr and to implement a specified development plan, meeting specified development milestones and providing an update on progress on an annual basis. The Meiji License requires us to pay milestone payments of up to $3.0 million upon the achievement of specified clinical and regulatory milestones and royalties of a low single-digit percentage on net sales on a country-by-country basis.

If we fail to comply with our obligations to Meiji or any of our other partners, our counterparties may have the right to terminate these agreements, in which event we might not be able to develop, manufacture or market any product candidate that is covered by these agreements, which could materially adversely affect the value of the product candidate being developed under any such agreement. Termination of these agreements or reduction or elimination of our rights under these agreements may result in our having to negotiate new or reinstated agreements with less favorable terms, or cause us to lose our rights under these agreements, including our rights to important intellectual property or technology.

Our use of government funding for certain of our programs adds complexity to our research and commercialization efforts with respect to those programs and may impose requirements that increase the costs of commercialization and production of product candidates developed under those government-funded programs.

We have received significant non-dilutive financing from various government agencies for the further development of our product candidates. Such funding sources may pose risks to us not encountered in other commercial contracts, including significant regulatory compliance risks. Contracts funded by the U.S. government and its agencies include provisions that reflect the government’s substantial public policy and compliance requirements, and substantial rights and remedies, many of which are not typically found in commercial contracts, including powers of the government to:

We may not have the right to prohibit the U.S. government from using certain technologies developed by us, and we may not be able to prohibit third-party companies, including our competitors, from using those technologies in providing products and services to the U.S. government. The U.S. government generally takes the position that it has the right to royalty-free use of technologies that are developed under U.S. government contracts.

In addition, government contracts and grants, and subcontracts and subawards awarded in the performance of those contracts and grants, normally contain additional requirements that may increase our costs of doing business, reduce our profits, and expose us to liability for failure to comply with these terms and conditions. These requirements include, for example:

If we fail to maintain compliance with these requirements, we may be subject to potential contract or FCA liability and to termination of our contracts.

U.S. government agencies have special contracting requirements that give them the ability to unilaterally control our contracts.

U.S. government contracts typically contain unfavorable termination provisions and are subject to audit and modification by the government at its sole discretion, which will subject us to additional risks. These risks include the ability of the U.S. government to unilaterally:

The U.S. government will be able to terminate any of its contracts with us, either for convenience or if we default by failing to perform in accordance with or to achieve the milestones set forth in the contract schedules and terms. Termination-for-convenience provisions generally enable us to recover only our costs incurred or committed and settlement expenses on the work completed prior to termination. Except for the amount of services received by the government, termination-for-default provisions do not permit these recoveries and would make us liable for excess costs incurred by the U.S. government in procuring undelivered items from another source.

Our business is subject to audit by the U.S. government and other potential sources for grant funding, including under our contracts with BARDA, NIAID and DoD, and a negative outcome in an audit could adversely affect our business

U.S. government agencies such as the Department of Health and Human Services, or the DHHS, and the Defense Contract Audit Agency, or the DCAA, routinely audit and investigate government contractors. These agencies review a contractor’s performance under its contracts, cost structure and compliance with applicable laws, regulations and standards.

The DHHS and the DCAA also review the adequacy of, and a contractor’s compliance with, its internal control systems and policies, including the contractor’s purchasing, property, estimating, compensation and management information systems. Any costs found to be improperly allocated to a specific contract will not be paid, while such costs already paid must be refunded. If an audit uncovers improper or illegal activities, we may be subject to civil and criminal penalties and administrative sanctions, including:

In addition, we could suffer serious reputational harm if allegations of impropriety were made against us, which could cause our stock price to decrease.

Laws and regulations affecting government contracts make it more expensive and difficult for us to successfully conduct our business.

We must comply with numerous laws and regulations relating to the formation, administration and performance of government contracts, which can make it more difficult for us to retain our rights under our government contracts. These laws and regulations affect how we conduct business with government agencies. Among the most significant government contracting regulations that affect our business are:

These requirements change frequently, such as through appropriations bills or executive orders. Any changes in applicable laws and regulations could restrict our ability to maintain our existing BARDA and other government contracts and obtain new contracts, which could limit our ability to conduct our business and materially adversely affect our results of operations.

Provisions in our U.S. government contracts, including our contracts with BARDA, may affect our intellectual property rights.

Certain of our activities have been funded, and may in the future be funded, by the U.S. government, including through our contracts with BARDA. When new technologies are developed with U.S. government funding, the government obtains certain rights in any resulting patents, including the right to a nonexclusive license authorizing the government to use the invention and rights that may permit the government to disclose our confidential information to third parties and to exercise “march-in” rights. The government

can exercise its march-in rights if it determines that action is necessary because we fail to achieve practical application of the U.S. government-funded technology, because action is necessary to alleviate health or safety needs, to meet requirements of federal regulations or to give preference to U.S. industry. In addition, U.S. government-funded inventions must be reported to the government, U.S. government funding must be disclosed in any resulting patent applications, and our rights in such inventions may be subject to certain requirements to manufacture products in the United States.

If we are unable to obtain and maintain sufficient patent protection for our technology or our product candidates, or if the scope of the patent protection is not sufficiently broad, our competitors could develop and commercialize technology and products similar or identical to ours, and our ability to successfully commercialize our technology and product candidates may be adversely affected.

Our success depends in large part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent protection in the United States and other countries with respect to our proprietary chemistry technology and product candidates. If we do not adequately protect our intellectual property, competitors may be able to use our technologies and erode or negate any competitive advantage that we may have, which could harm our business and ability to achieve profitability. To protect our proprietary position, we file patent applications in the United States and abroad related to our novel technologies and product candidates that are important to our business. The patent application and approval process is expensive and time-consuming. We may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. We may also fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development before it is too late to obtain patent protection.

The patent position of biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies generally is highly uncertain. No consistent policy regarding the breadth of claims allowed in biotechnology and pharmaceutical patents has emerged to date in the United States or in many foreign jurisdictions. In addition, the determination of patent rights with respect to pharmaceutical compounds and technologies commonly involves complex legal and factual questions, which has in recent years been the subject of much litigation. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of our patent rights are highly uncertain. Furthermore, recent changes in patent laws in the United States, including the America Invents Act of 2011, may affect the scope, strength and enforceability of our patent rights or the nature of proceedings which may be brought by us related to our patent rights.

Our pending and future patent applications may not result in patents being issued which protect our technology or product candidates, in whole or in part, or which effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive technologies and products. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent laws in the United States and other countries may diminish the value of our patents or narrow the scope of our patent protection.

The laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the United States. For example, even assuming the other requirements for patentability are met, currently, in the United States, the first to make the claimed invention is entitled to the patent, while outside the United States, the first to file a patent application is entitled to the patent. Publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing, or in some cases not at all. Therefore, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for patent protection of such inventions. As a result of the America Invents Act of 2011, the United States transitioned to a first-inventor-to-file system in March 2013, under which, assuming the other requirements for patentability are met, the first inventor to file a patent application is entitled to the patent. However, as a result of the lag in the publication of patent applications following filing in the United States, we are still not be able to be certain upon filing that we are the first to file for patent protection for any invention. Moreover, we may be subject to a third-party preissuance submission of prior art to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or become involved in opposition, derivation, reexamination, inter partes review or interference proceedings, in the United States or elsewhere, challenging our patent rights or the patent rights of others. An adverse determination in any such submission, proceeding or litigation could reduce the scope of, or invalidate, our patent rights, allow third parties to commercialize our technology or product candidates and compete directly with us, without payment to us, or result in our inability to manufacture or commercialize products without infringing third-party patent rights.

Even if our patent applications issue as patents, they may not issue in a form that will provide us with any meaningful protection, prevent competitors from competing with us or otherwise provide us with any competitive advantage. Our competitors may be able to circumvent our owned or licensed patents by developing similar or alternative technologies or products in a non-infringing manner. Our competitors may seek to market generic versions of any approved products by submitting Abbreviated New Drug Applications to the FDA in which they claim that patents owned or licensed by us are invalid, unenforceable and/or not infringed. Alternatively, our competitors may seek approval to market their own products similar to or otherwise competitive with our products. In these circumstances, we may need to defend and/or assert our patents, including by filing lawsuits alleging patent infringement. In any of these types of proceedings, a court or other agency with jurisdiction may find our patents invalid and/or unenforceable. Even if we have valid and enforceable patents, these patents still may not provide protection against competing products or processes sufficient to achieve our business objectives.

The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, scope, validity or enforceability, and our owned and licensed patents may be challenged in the courts or patent offices in the United States and abroad. Such challenges may result in loss of exclusivity or freedom to operate or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and products. In addition, given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized.

We may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe our patents, trademarks, copyrights or other intellectual property, or those of our licensors. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time consuming and divert the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel. Any claims we assert against perceived infringers could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their patents. In addition, in a patent infringement proceeding, there is a risk that a court will decide that a patent of ours is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, and that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue. There is also a risk that, even if the validity of such patents is upheld, the court will construe the patent’s claims narrowly or decide that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the invention. An adverse outcome in a litigation or proceeding involving our patents could limit our ability to assert our patents against those parties or other competitors, and may curtail or preclude our ability to exclude third parties from making and selling similar or competitive products. Any of these occurrences could adversely affect our competitive business position, business prospects and financial condition. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the marks in question. In this case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such trademarks.

In any infringement litigation, any award of monetary damages we receive may not be commercially valuable. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during litigation. Moreover, there can be no assurance that we will have sufficient financial or other resources to file and pursue such infringement claims, which typically last for years before they are concluded. Even if we ultimately prevail in such claims, the monetary cost of such litigation and the diversion of the attention of our management and scientific personnel could outweigh any benefit we receive as a result of the proceedings.

If we are sued for infringing intellectual property rights of third parties, or otherwise become involved in disputes regarding our intellectual property rights, such litigation could be costly and time consuming and could prevent or delay us from developing or commercializing our product candidates.

Our commercial success depends, in part, on our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates and use our proprietary chemistry technology without infringing the intellectual property and other proprietary rights of third parties. Numerous third-party U.S. and non-U.S. issued patents and pending applications exist in the area of antibacterial treatment, including compounds, formulations, treatment methods and synthetic processes that may be applied towards the synthesis of antibiotics. If any of their patents or patent applications cover our product candidates or technologies, we may not be free to manufacture or market our product candidates as planned.

There is a substantial amount of intellectual property litigation in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, and we may become party to, or threatened with, litigation or other adversarial proceedings regarding intellectual property rights with respect to our technology or product candidates, including interference proceedings before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Intellectual property disputes arise in a number of areas including with respect to patents, use of other proprietary rights and the contractual terms of license arrangements. Third parties may assert claims against us based on existing or future intellectual property rights. The outcome of intellectual property litigation is subject to uncertainties that cannot be adequately quantified in advance. With respect to our Meiji License of certain know-how used in tebipenem HBr, we are neither a party to, nor an express third-party beneficiary of, the letter agreement between Meiji and Global Pharma consenting to Meiji’s arrangement with us. As such, if any dispute among the parties were to occur, our direct enforcement rights with respect to the letter agreement may be limited or uncertain. A termination or early expiration of the head license between Meiji and Global Pharma (which currently by its terms is set to expire in January 2022) or any restriction on our ability to use the Global Pharma know-how could have a negative impact on our development of tebipenem HBr and adversely affect our business.

If we are found to infringe a third party’s intellectual property rights, we could be forced, including by court order, to cease developing, manufacturing or commercializing the infringing product candidate or product. Alternatively, we may be required to obtain a license from such third party in order to use the infringing technology and continue developing, manufacturing or marketing the infringing product candidate. However, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a license, it could be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us. In addition, we could be found liable for monetary damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees if we are

found to have willfully infringed a patent. A finding of infringement could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates or force us to cease some of our business operations, which could materially harm our business. Claims that we have misappropriated the confidential information or trade secrets of third parties could have a similar negative effect on our business.

We may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants or contractors have misappropriated the intellectual property of a third party, or claims asserting ownership of what we regard as our own intellectual property.

Many of our employees, consultants and contractors are currently, or were previously, employed at universities or other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that these individuals do not use the intellectual property and other proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we or these individuals have used or disclosed such intellectual property or other proprietary information. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims.

In addition, while we typically require our employees, consultants and contractors who may be involved in the development of intellectual property to execute agreements assigning such intellectual property to us, we may be unsuccessful in executing such an agreement with each party who in fact develops intellectual property that we regard as our own. To the extent that we fail to obtain such assignments, or such assignments are breached, we may be forced to bring claims against third parties, or defend claims they may bring against us, to determine the ownership of what we regard as our intellectual property. If we fail in prosecuting or defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. Even if we are successful in prosecuting or defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to our management and scientific personnel.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets, the value of our technology could be materially adversely affected and our business would be harmed.

In addition to seeking patents for some of our technology and products, we also rely on trade secrets, including unpatented know-how, technology and other proprietary information, in seeking to develop and maintain a competitive position. We seek to protect these trade secrets, in part, by entering into non-disclosure and confidentiality agreements with parties who have access to them, such as our consultants, independent contractors, advisors, corporate collaborators, outside scientific collaborators, contract manufacturers, suppliers and other third parties. We, as well as our licensors, also enter into confidentiality and invention or patent assignment agreements with employees and certain consultants. Any party with whom we have executed such an agreement may breach that agreement and disclose our proprietary information, including our trade secrets, and we may not be able to obtain adequate remedies for such breaches. Enforcing a claim that a party illegally disclosed or misappropriated a trade secret is difficult, expensive and time-consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, if any of our trade secrets were to be lawfully obtained or independently developed by a competitor, we would have no right to prevent such third party, or those to whom they communicate such technology or information, from using that technology or information to compete with us. If any of our trade secrets were to be disclosed to or independently developed by a competitor, our business and competitive position could be harmed.

We have registered trademarks and pending trademark applications. Failure to enforce our registered marks or secure registration of our pending trademark applications could adversely affect our business.

We have registered our trademarks for our name and logo in the United States and other countries and have a number of pending trademark applications in the United States and other countries. As of December 31, 2019, Spero therapeutics has two registered U.S. trademarks, nine registered foreign trademarks, and nine pending trademark applications. If our registered trademarks are invalidated, we may be unable to exclusively use our name or logo in certain jurisdictions or may need to change our name or logo in certain jurisdiction, which could affect our business. If we do not secure registrations for our pending trademark applications, we may encounter more difficulty in enforcing them against third parties, which could adversely affect our business. We have not yet registered trademarks for any of our product candidates in any jurisdiction. When we file trademark applications for our product candidates, those applications may not be allowed for registration, and registered trademarks may not be obtained, maintained or enforced. During trademark registration proceedings in the United States and foreign jurisdictions, we may receive rejections. We are given an opportunity to respond to those rejections, but we may not be able to overcome such rejections. In addition, in the United States Patent and Trademark Office and in comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, and our trademarks may not survive such proceedings.

In addition, any proprietary name we propose to use with tebipenem HBr or any other product candidate in the United States must be approved by the FDA, regardless of whether we have registered it, or applied to register it, as a trademark. The FDA typically conducts a review of proposed product names, including an evaluation of potential for confusion with other product names. If the FDA objects to any of our proposed proprietary product names, we may be required to expend significant additional resources in an effort to identify a suitable proprietary product name that would qualify under applicable trademark laws, not infringe the existing rights of third parties and be acceptable to the FDA.

If we are not able to obtain, or if there are delays in obtaining, required regulatory approvals, we will not be able to commercialize tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates, and our ability to generate revenue will be materially impaired.

Our product candidates and the activities associated with their development and commercialization, including their design, testing, manufacture, safety, efficacy, recordkeeping, labeling, storage, approval, advertising, promotion, sale and distribution, are subject to comprehensive regulation by the FDA and other regulatory agencies in the United States and by comparable foreign regulatory authorities, with regulations differing from country to country. Failure to obtain marketing approval for a product candidate will prevent us from commercializing the product candidate. We currently do not have any products approved for sale in any jurisdiction. We have only limited experience in filing and supporting the applications necessary to gain marketing approvals and expect to rely on third-party contract research organizations to assist us in this process.

The time required to obtain approval, if any, by the FDA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any product candidate and it is possible that none of our existing product candidates or any product candidates we may seek to develop in the future will ever obtain regulatory approval. Neither we nor any future collaborators are permitted to market any of our product candidates in the United States until we or they receive regulatory approval of an NDA from the FDA.

In order to obtain approval to commercialize a product candidate in the United States or abroad, we or our collaborators must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the FDA or foreign regulatory agencies, that such product candidates are safe and effective for their intended uses. Results from nonclinical studies and clinical trials can be interpreted in different ways. Even if we believe that the nonclinical or clinical data for our product candidates are promising, such data may not be sufficient to support approval by the FDA and other regulatory authorities. The FDA may also require us to conduct additional nonclinical studies or clinical trials for our product candidates either prior to or post-approval, and it may otherwise object to elements of our clinical development program.

We have not submitted an NDA for any of our product candidates. An NDA must include extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to establish the product candidate’s safety and efficacy for each desired indication. The NDA must also include significant information regarding the chemistry, manufacturing and controls for the product candidate. Obtaining approval of an NDA is a lengthy, expensive and uncertain process. The FDA has substantial discretion in the review and approval process and may refuse to accept for filing any application or may decide that our data are insufficient for approval and require additional nonclinical, clinical or other studies. Foreign regulatory authorities have differing requirements for approval of drugs with which we must comply prior to marketing. Obtaining marketing approval for marketing of a product candidate in one country does not ensure that we will be able to obtain marketing approval in other countries, but the failure to obtain marketing approval in one jurisdiction could negatively affect our ability to obtain marketing approval in other jurisdictions. The FDA or any foreign regulatory bodies can delay, limit or deny approval of our product candidates or require us to conduct additional nonclinical or clinical testing or abandon a program for many reasons, including:

Of the large number of drugs in development, only a small percentage complete the FDA or foreign regulatory approval processes and are successfully commercialized. The lengthy review process as well as the unpredictability of future clinical trial results may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval, which would significantly harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Even if we eventually receive approval of an NDA or foreign marketing application for our product candidates, the FDA or the applicable foreign regulatory agency may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly additional clinical trials, often referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, and the FDA may require the implementation of an REMS which may be required to ensure safe use of the drug after approval. The FDA or the applicable foreign regulatory agency also may approve a product candidate for a more limited indication or patient population than we originally requested, and the FDA or applicable foreign regulatory agency may not approve the labeling that we believe is necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of a product candidate. Any delay in obtaining, or inability to obtain, applicable regulatory approval would delay or prevent commercialization of that product candidate and would materially adversely impact our business and prospects.

A fast track designation may not actually lead to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process.

We have received fast track designation for tebipenem HBr for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections and acute pyelonephritis and may seek fast track designation for one or more of our other product candidates. If a drug is intended for the treatment of a serious condition and nonclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical need for this condition, a drug sponsor may apply for fast track designation by the FDA for the particular indication under study. If fast track designation is obtained, the FDA may initiate review of sections of an NDA before the application is complete. This “rolling review” is available if the applicant provides and the FDA approves a schedule for the remaining information. If we seek fast track designation for a product candidate, we may not receive it from the FDA. However, even if we receive fast track designation, fast track designation does not ensure that we will receive marketing approval or that approval will be granted within any particular timeframe. We may not experience a faster development or regulatory review or approval process with fast track designation compared to conventional FDA procedures. In addition, the FDA may withdraw fast track designation if it believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from our clinical development program. Fast track designation alone does not guarantee qualification for the FDA’s priority review procedures.

In March 2020, the FDA granted orphan drug designation for SPR720. We may seek orphan drug designation for certain of our other product candidates. We may not be able to obtain or maintain orphan drug designations for any of our other product candidates, and we may be unable to take advantage of the benefits associated with orphan drug designation, including the potential for market exclusivity.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the United States, may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. Under the Orphan Drug Act of 1983, the FDA may designate a product as an orphan product if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or a patient population of greater than 200,000 individuals in the United States, but for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing the drug will be recovered from sales in the United States. There can be no assurance that the FDA will grant orphan designation for any indication for which we apply.

In the United States, orphan designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as opportunities for grant funding towards clinical trial costs, tax advantages and user-fee waivers. In addition, if a product candidate that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease for which it has such designation, it is entitled to orphan drug exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications, including an NDA, to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan drug exclusivity or where the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient product quantity.

Even though we have obtained orphan drug designation for SPR720 and may seek orphan drug designation for other product candidates in the future, there is no assurance that we will be the first to obtain marketing approval for NTM infection or for any particular rare indication. Further, even though we have obtained orphan drug designation for SPR720, or even if we obtain orphan drug designation for other product candidates, such designation may not effectively protect us from competition because different drugs can be approved for the same condition and the same drug can be approved for different conditions and potentially used off-label in the orphan indication. Even after an orphan drug is approved, the FDA can subsequently approve a competing drug for the same condition for several reasons, including, if the FDA concludes that the later drug is safer or more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care. Orphan drug designation neither shortens the development time or regulatory review time of a drug, nor gives the drug any advantage in the regulatory review or approval process.

If we are unable to obtain marketing approval in international jurisdictions, we will not be able to market our product candidates abroad.

In order to market and sell tebipenem HBr or our other product candidates in the European Union and many other jurisdictions, we must obtain separate marketing approvals and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one regulatory authority outside the United States does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions or by the FDA. The approval procedure varies among countries and can involve additional testing. In addition, clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries. The time required to obtain approval from regulatory authorities in other countries may differ substantially from that required to obtain FDA approval. The regulatory approval process outside the United States generally includes all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA approval. In addition, in many countries outside the United States, it is required that the product be approved for reimbursement before the product can be approved for sale in that country. We may not obtain approvals from regulatory authorities outside the United States on a timely basis or at all.

If we receive regulatory approval for any product candidate, we will be subject to ongoing obligations and continuing regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense. Our product candidates, if approved, could be subject to restrictions or withdrawal from the market, and we may be subject to penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or if we experience unanticipated problems with our product candidates, when and if approved.

Any product candidate for which we obtain marketing approval will also be subject to ongoing regulatory requirements for labeling, packaging, storage, distribution, advertising, promotion, record keeping and submission of safety and other post-market information. For example, approved products, manufacturers and manufacturers’ facilities are required to comply with extensive FDA requirements, including ensuring that quality control and manufacturing procedures conform to cGMPs. As such, we and our contract manufacturers will be subject to continual review and periodic inspections to assess compliance with cGMPs. Accordingly, we and others with whom we work must continue to expend time, money and effort in all areas of regulatory compliance, including manufacturing, production and quality control. We will also be required to report certain adverse reactions and production problems, if any, to the FDA and to comply with requirements concerning advertising and promotion for our products.

In addition, even if marketing approval of a product candidate is granted, the approval may be subject to limitations on the indicated uses for which the product may be marketed, may be subject to significant conditions of approval or may impose requirements for costly post-marketing testing and surveillance to monitor the safety or efficacy of the product. The FDA may also require a REMS as a condition of approval of our product candidates, which could include requirements for a medication guide, physician communication plans or additional elements to ensure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries and other risk minimization tools. The FDA closely regulates the post-approval marketing and promotion of drugs to ensure that drugs are marketed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling and regulatory requirements. The FDA also imposes stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use and if we do not restrict the marketing of our products only to their approved indications, we may be subject to enforcement action for off-label marketing.

If a regulatory agency discovers previously unknown problems with a product, such as adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured, or disagrees with the promotion, marketing or labeling of a product, it may impose restrictions on that product or us. In addition, if any product fails to comply with applicable regulatory requirements, a regulatory agency may:

The FDA’s policies may change and additional government regulations may be enacted that could prevent, limit or delay marketing approval of our product candidates. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may lose any marketing approval that we may have obtained, which would adversely affect our business, prospects and ability to achieve or sustain profitability.

Our relationships with customers and third-party payors will be subject to applicable anti-kickback, fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, which could expose us to criminal sanctions, civil penalties, contractual damages, reputational harm and diminished profits and future earnings.

Healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors will play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any product candidates for which we may obtain marketing approval. Our future arrangements with third-party payors and customers will expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we market, sell and distribute any products for which we obtain marketing approval and reimbursement. These laws and regulations include, for example, the false claims and anti-kickback statutes and regulations. At such time as we market, sell and distribute any products for which we obtain marketing approval and reimbursement, it is possible that our business activities could be subject to challenge under one or more of these laws and regulations. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations include the following:

We will be required to spend substantial time and money to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties, and our business generally, comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations. Even then, governmental authorities may conclude that our business practices, including arrangements we may have with physicians and other healthcare providers, some of whom may receive stock options as compensation for services provided, do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If governmental authorities find that our operations violate any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, imprisonment, fines, exclusion from government funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, and we may be required to curtail or restructure our operations. Moreover, we expect that there will continue to be federal and state laws and regulations, proposed and implemented, that could affect our operations and business. The extent to which future legislation or regulations, if any, relating to healthcare fraud and abuse laws or enforcement, may be enacted or what effect such legislation or regulation would have on our business remains uncertain.

Future legislation, and/or regulations and policies adopted by the FDA, the EMA or similar regulatory authorities may increase the time and cost required for us to conduct and complete clinical trials of tebipenem HBr and our other product candidates and potential product candidates.

The FDA has established regulations to govern the drug development and approval process, as have foreign regulatory authorities. The policies of the FDA and other regulatory authorities may change and additional laws may be enacted or government regulations may be promulgated that could prevent, limit, delay but also accelerate regulatory review of our product candidates. For example, in December 2016, the 21st Century Cures Act, or Cures Act, was signed into law. The Cures Act, among other things, is intended to modernize the regulation of drugs and spur innovation, but all of its provisions have not yet been implemented. Among other things, the Cures Act provides a new “limited population” pathway for certain antibacterial and antifungal drugs, or LPAD, but the FDA has not yet issued guidance regarding the LPAD. Additionally, in August 2017, FDA issued final guidance setting forth its current thinking with respect to development programs and clinical trial designs for antibacterial drugs to treat serious bacterial diseases in patients with an unmet medical need. We cannot predict what if any effect the Cures Act or any existing or future guidance from FDA will have on the development of our product candidates.

Recently enacted and future policies and legislation may increase the difficulty and cost for us to obtain marketing approval of and commercialize our product candidates and may affect the reimbursement made for any product candidate for which we receive marketing approval.

The pricing and reimbursement environment may become more challenging due to, among other reasons, policies advanced by the new presidential administration, federal agencies, new healthcare legislation passed by the U.S. Congress or fiscal challenges faced by all levels of government health administration authorities. Among policy makers and payors in the United States and foreign countries, there is significant interest in promoting changes in healthcare systems with the stated goals of containing healthcare costs, improving quality and expanding access to healthcare. In the United States, the pharmaceutical industry has been a particular focus of these efforts and has been significantly affected by major legislative initiatives. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of any products for which we obtain marketing approval, due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations and additional legislative proposals. Resulting legislative, administrative, or policy changes from payors may reduce payments for any products for which we obtain marketing approval and could affect future revenues.

The ACA became law in the United States in March 2010 with the goals of broadening access to health insurance, reducing or constraining the growth of healthcare spending, enhancing remedies against fraud and abuse, adding new transparency requirements for the health care and health insurance industries and imposing additional health policy reforms. Provisions of ACA may negatively affect our future revenues. For example, the ACA requires, among other things, that annual fees be paid by manufacturers for certain branded prescription drugs, that manufacturers participate in a discount program for certain outpatient drugs under Medicare Part D, and that manufacturers provide increased rebates under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program for outpatient drugs dispensed to Medicaid recipients. The ACA also addresses a new methodology by which rebates owed by manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program are calculated for line extensions and expands oversight and support for the federal government’s comparative effectiveness research of services and products.

Since its enactment, there have been judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the ACA. As a result, there have been delays in the implementation of certain aspects of the ACA. Both Congress and President Trump have expressed their intention to repeal or repeal and replace the ACA, and as a result certain sections of the ACA have not been fully implemented or effectively repealed. The uncertainty around the future of the ACA, and in particular the impact to reimbursement levels, may lead to uncertainty or delay in the purchasing decisions of our customers, which may in turn negatively impact our product sales. If there are not adequate reimbursement levels, our business and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Beginning on April 1, 2013, Medicare payments for all items and services under Part A and B, including drugs and biologicals, and most payments to plans under Medicare Part D were reduced by 2%, or automatic spending reductions, required by the Budget Control Act of 2011, or BCA, as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. The BCA requires sequestration for most federal programs, excluding Medicaid, Social Security, and certain other programs. The BCA caps the cuts to Medicare payments for items and services and payments to Part D plans at 2%. Subsequent legislation extended the 2% reduction, on average, to 2025. As long as these cuts remain in effect, they could adversely affect payment for our product candidates. We expect that additional state and federal healthcare reform measures will be adopted in the future, any of which could limit the amounts that federal and state governments will pay for healthcare products and services, which could result in reduced demand for our product candidates or additional pricing pressures.

Moreover, there has been heightened governmental scrutiny over the manner in which manufacturers set prices for their marketed products. There have been several U.S. Congressional inquiries and proposed bills designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. Individual states in the United States have also become increasingly active in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

Legislative and regulatory proposals have been made to expand post-approval requirements and restrict sales and promotional activities for pharmaceutical products. We cannot be sure whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or whether the FDA regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the effect of such changes on the marketing approvals of our product candidates, if any, may be. In addition, increased scrutiny by the U.S. Congress of the FDA’s approval process may significantly delay or prevent marketing approval, as well as subject us to more stringent product labeling and post-marketing testing and other requirements.

If we successfully commercialize one of our product candidates, failure to comply with our reporting and payment obligations under U.S. governmental pricing programs could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

If we participate in the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program if and when we successfully commercialize a product candidate, we will be required to report certain pricing information for our product to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, the federal agency that administers the Medicaid and Medicare programs. We may also be required to report pricing information to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. If we become subject to these reporting requirements, we will be liable for errors associated with our submission of pricing data, for failure to report pricing data in a timely manner, and for overcharging government payers, which can result in civil monetary penalties under the Medicaid statute, the federal civil False Claims Act, and other laws and regulations.

Our employees, independent contractors, principal investigators, contract research organizations, consultants or vendors may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements.

We are exposed to the risk that our employees, independent contractors, principal investigators, contract research organizations, consultants or vendors may engage in fraudulent or other illegal activity. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct or disclosure of unauthorized activities to us that violates: FDA regulations, including those laws requiring the reporting of true, complete and accurate information to the FDA; manufacturing standards; federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations; or laws that require the true, complete and accurate reporting of financial information or data. Specifically, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Activities subject to these laws also involve the improper use or misrepresentation of information obtained in the course of clinical trials or creating fraudulent data in our preclinical studies or clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct by our employees and other third parties, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. Additionally, we are subject to the risk that a person could allege such fraud or other misconduct, even if none occurred. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, monetary fines, possible exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid and other federal healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished potential profits and future earnings, and curtailment of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects.

The recently passed comprehensive tax reform bill could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

On December 22, 2017, President Trump signed into law the “Tax Cuts and Jobs Act,” or TCJA, which significantly reforms the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended. The TCJA, among other things, includes changes to U.S. federal tax rates, imposes significant additional limitations on the deductibility of interest and net operating loss carryforwards, allows for the expensing of capital expenditures, and puts into effect the migration from a “worldwide” system of taxation to a territorial system. As a result of the TCJA, our net deferred tax assets and liabilities existing as of December 31, 2017 were revalued at the newly enacted U.S. corporate rate. The impact of this tax reform is uncertain and could be adverse. We urge our investors to consult with their legal and tax advisors with respect to such legislation and the potential tax consequences of investing in our securities.

Inadequate funding for the FDA, the SEC and other government agencies could hinder their ability to hire and retain key leadership and other personnel, prevent our product candidates from being developed or commercialized in a timely manner or otherwise prevent those agencies from performing normal business functions on which the operation of our business relies, which could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA to review and approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and statutory, regulatory and policy changes. Average review times at the agency have fluctuated in recent years as a result. In addition, government funding of the SEC and other government agencies on which our operations may rely, including those that fund research and development activities is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable.

Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new drugs to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years, including beginning on December 22, 2018, the U.S. government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA and the SEC, have had to furlough critical FDA, SEC and other government employees and stop critical activities. If a prolonged government shutdown occurs, it could significantly affect the ability of the FDA to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. Further, in our operations as a public company, future government shutdowns could impact our ability to access the public markets and obtain necessary capital in order to properly capitalize and continue our operations.

Our future success depends on our ability to retain our chief executive officer and other key executives and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

Our industry has experienced a high rate of turnover of management personnel in recent years. We are highly dependent on the development, regulatory, commercialization and business development expertise of Ankit Mahadevia, M.D., our President and Chief Executive Officer, as well as the other principal members of our management, scientific and clinical team. Although we have formal employment agreements with our executive officers, these agreements do not prevent them from terminating their employment with us at any time.

If we lose one or more of our executive officers or key employees, our ability to implement our business strategy successfully could be seriously harmed. Furthermore, replacing executive officers and key employees may be difficult and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience required to develop, gain regulatory approval of and commercialize product candidates successfully. Competition to hire from this limited pool is intense, and we may be unable to hire, train, retain or motivate these additional key personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for similar personnel. We also experience competition for the hiring of scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions. In addition, we rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our research and development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be engaged by entities other than us and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with other entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain high quality personnel, our ability to develop and commercialize product candidates will be limited.

We expect to grow our organization, and as a result, we may encounter difficulties in managing our growth, which could disrupt our operations.

We expect to experience significant growth in the number of our employees and the scope of our operations, particularly in the areas of product candidate development, regulatory affairs and sales, marketing and distribution. Our management may need to divert a disproportionate amount of its attention away from our day-to-day activities to devote time to managing these growth activities. To manage these growth activities, we must continue to implement and improve our managerial, operational and financial systems, expand our facilities and continue to recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Due to our limited financial resources and the limited experience of our management team in managing a company with such anticipated growth, we may not be able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations or recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Our inability to effectively manage the expansion of our operations may result in weaknesses in our infrastructure, give rise to operational mistakes, loss of business opportunities, loss of employees and reduced productivity among remaining employees. Our expected growth could require significant capital expenditures and may divert financial resources from other projects, such as the development of additional product candidates. If our management is unable to effectively manage our expected growth, our expenses may increase more than expected, our potential ability to generate revenue could be reduced and we may not be able to implement our business strategy.

If foreign approvals are obtained, we will be subject to additional risks in conducting business in international markets.

Even if we are able to obtain approval for commercialization of a product candidate in a foreign country, we will be subject to additional risks related to international business operations, including:

These and other risks may materially adversely affect our ability to attain or sustain revenue from international markets.

We may engage in acquisitions that could disrupt our business, cause dilution to our stockholders or reduce our financial resources.

In the future, we may enter into transactions to acquire other businesses, products or technologies. If we do identify suitable candidates, we may not be able to make such acquisitions on favorable terms, or at all. Any acquisitions we make may not strengthen our competitive position, and these transactions may be viewed negatively by investors. We may decide to incur debt in connection with an acquisition or issue our common stock or other equity securities to the stockholders of the acquired company, which would reduce the percentage ownership of our existing stockholders. We could incur losses resulting from undiscovered liabilities of the acquired business that are not covered by the indemnification we may obtain from the seller. In addition, we may not be able to successfully integrate the acquired personnel, technologies and operations into our existing business in an effective, timely and nondisruptive manner. Acquisitions may also divert management attention from day-to-day responsibilities, increase our expenses and reduce our cash available for operations and other uses. We cannot predict the number, timing or size of future acquisitions or the effect that any such transactions might have on our operating results.

The price of our common stock may be volatile and fluctuate substantially, which could result in substantial losses for our stockholders.

Our stock price may be volatile. The stock market in general and the market for smaller pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in particular have experienced extreme volatility that has often been unrelated to the operating performance of particular companies. As a result of this volatility, our stockholders may not be able to sell their shares at or above the price they paid for their shares. The market price for our common stock may be influenced by many factors, including:

In addition, the stock market has experienced significant volatility, particularly with respect to pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other life sciences company stocks. The volatility of pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other life sciences company stocks often does not relate to the operating performance of the companies represented by the stock. In the past, securities class action litigation has often been initiated against companies following periods of volatility in their stock price. This type of litigation could result in substantial costs and divert our management’s attention and resources, and could also require us to make substantial payments to satisfy judgments or to settle litigation.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our share price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock relies in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If few analysts provide coverage of us, the trading price of our stock would likely decline. If one or more of the analysts covering our business downgrade our stock or change their opinion of our stock, our share price would likely decline. In addition, if one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which could cause our share price or trading volume to decline.

We can issue and have issued shares of preferred stock, which may adversely affect the rights of holders of our common stock.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation authorizes us to issue up to 10,000,000 shares of preferred stock with designations, rights and preferences determined from time-to-time by our board of directors. Accordingly, our board of directors is empowered, without stockholder approval, to issue preferred stock with dividend, liquidation, conversion, voting or other rights superior to those of holders of our common stock. For example, an issuance of shares of preferred stock could:

We have in the past issued, and we may at any time in the future issue, shares of preferred stock. In connection with our July 2018 public offering, we issued 2,220 shares of our Series A Convertible Preferred Stock, or Series A Preferred Stock, to certain affiliates of Biotechnology Value Fund, L.P., or BVF, each share of which is convertible into 1,000 shares of our common stock, subject to certain ownership restrictions. In November 2018, we entered into an exchange agreement with BVF to exchange 1,000,000 shares of our common stock previously held by BVF for 1,000 shares of our Series B Convertible Preferred Stock, or Series B Preferred Stock, each share of which is convertible into 1,000 shares of our common stock, subject to certain ownership restrictions. In June 2019, BVF converted 500 shares of Series A Convertible Preferred Stock into 500,000 shares of our common stock pursuant to BVF’s rights under the certificate of designation for such Series A Convertible Preferred Stock. In connection with our rights offering, which we launched in February 2020 and closed in early March 2020, we issued 2,287 shares of our Series C Convertible Preferred Stock to BVF. If BVF or any other future holders of our shares of preferred stock convert their shares into common stock, existing holders of our common stock will experience dilution.

We have broad discretion in the use of our cash reserves and may not use them effectively.

Our management will have broad discretion in the application of our cash reserves and could spend these funds in ways that do not improve our results of operations or enhance the value of our common stock. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could result in financial losses that could have a material adverse effect on our business, cause the price of our common stock to decline and delay the development of our product candidates. Pending their use, we may invest our cash reserves in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value.

We are an “emerging growth company,” and the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to emerging growth companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act, and may remain an emerging growth company for up to five years. We would cease to be an emerging growth company upon the earlier of: (i) the last day of the fiscal year in which we have total annual gross revenue of $1.07 billion or more; (ii) the last day of the fiscal year following the fifth anniversary of the date of the completion of our IPO, which is December 31, 2022; (iii) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in nonconvertible debt during the previous three years; or (iv) the date on which we are deemed to be a large accelerated filer under the rules of the SEC which means the first day of the year following the first year in which the market value of our common stock that is held by non-affiliates exceeds $700.0 million as of June 30th. For so long as we remain an emerging growth company, we are permitted and intend to rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. These exemptions include not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as amended, or Sarbanes-Oxley, reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation and exemptions from the requirements of holding a nonbinding advisory vote on executive compensation and stockholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved. We cannot predict whether investors will find our common stock less attractive if we rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be more volatile.

In addition, the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of an extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards. This allows an emerging growth company to delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have irrevocably elected not to avail ourselves of this exemption and we will therefore be subject to the same new or revised accounting standards as other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. As a result, changes in rules of U.S. generally accepted accounting principles or their interpretation, the adoption of new guidance or the application of existing guidance to changes in our business could significantly affect our financial position and results of operations.

We have incurred and will continue to incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

As a public company, and particularly after we are no longer an “emerging growth company,” we incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. Sarbanes-Oxley, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of The Nasdaq Global Select Market and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on public companies, including establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our management and other personnel devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations have increased our legal and financial compliance costs and have made some activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, these rules and regulations have made it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, which could make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified members of our board of directors. These rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices.

Failure to maintain effective internal controls in accordance with Section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley in the future could have a material adverse effect on our ability to produce accurate financial statements and on our stock price.

Section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley requires us, on an annual basis, to review and evaluate our internal controls. To maintain compliance with Section 404, we are required to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. We will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, continue to engage outside consultants and follow a detailed work plan to continue to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. If we identify one or more material weaknesses, it could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares may be sold into the market in the near future, which could cause the market price of our common stock to decline significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. These sales, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares of common stock intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. Our outstanding shares of common stock may be freely sold in the public market at any time to the extent permitted by Rules 144 and 701 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, or to the extent that such shares have already been registered under the Securities Act and are held by non-affiliates of ours. Moreover, holders of a substantial number of shares of our common stock have rights, subject to conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders. We also have registered all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans or that are issuable upon exercise of outstanding options. These shares can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance and once vested, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates. If any of these additional shares are sold, or if it is perceived that they will be sold, in the public market, the market price of our common stock could decline.

We do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future. Accordingly, stockholders must rely on capital appreciation, if any, for any return on their investment.

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the operation, development and growth of our business. To the extent that we enter into any future debt agreements, the terms of such agreements may also preclude us from paying dividends. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be our stockholders’ sole source of gain for the foreseeable future.

Our executive officers, directors and principal stockholders maintain the ability to control all matters submitted to stockholders for approval.

As of March 31, 2020, our executive officers and directors, combined with our stockholders who as of such date owned more than 5% of our outstanding common stock, in the aggregate, beneficially own shares representing approximately 42% of our capital stock. As a result, if these stockholders were to choose to act together, they would be able to control all matters submitted to our stockholders for approval, as well as our management and affairs. For example, these persons, if they choose to act together, would control the election of directors and approval of any merger, consolidation or sale of all or substantially all of our assets. This concentration of ownership control may:

Provisions in our corporate charter documents and under Delaware law could make an acquisition of us, which may be beneficial to our stockholders, more difficult and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws may discourage, delay or prevent a merger, acquisition or other change in control of us that our stockholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which our stockholders might otherwise receive a premium for their shares. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions:

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner. This could discourage, delay or prevent someone from acquiring us or merging with us, whether or not it is desired by, or beneficial to, our stockholders.

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

Delaware	46-4590683

( State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)	(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)

675 Massachusetts Avenue, 14th Floor Cambridge, Massachusetts	02139

(Address of principal executive offices)	(Zip Code)

Title of each class	Trading Symbol(s)	Name of each exchange on which registered
Common Stock, $0.001 par value per share	SPRO	The Nasdaq Global Select Market

		Page
	PART I – FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Item 1.	Financial Statements (Unaudited)	3
	Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets as of March 31, 2020 and December 31, 2019	3
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Loss for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019	4
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019	5
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity for the three months ended March 31, 2020 and 2019	6
	Notes to Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements	7
Item 2.	Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	26
Item 3.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	37
Item 4.	Controls and Procedures	37

	PART II – OTHER INFORMATION
Item 1A.	Risk Factors	38
Item 6.	Exhibits	75

Signatures		76

		Estimated Useful Life
Laboratory equipment		5 years
Computer software and equipment		3 years
Office furniture and equipment		7 years
Manufacturing equipment		5 years
Leasehold improvements		Shorter of life of lease or 5 years

Years Ending December 31,
2020 (remainder)	$	696
2021		943
2022		1,061
2023		1,076
2024		1,092
2025		1,108
Thereafter		1,862
Total future minimum lease payments		7,838
Less imputed interest		(2,385	)
Total operating lease liabilities	$	5,453

Large accelerated filer	☐	Accelerated filer	☒
Non-accelerated filer	☐	Smaller reporting company	☒
		Emerging growth company	☒

	March 31, 2020
	Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Fair Value
Assets:
U.S. government securities	$	—	$	—	$	—		$	—
Corporate bonds		13,532		—		(19	)		13,513
Commercial paper		10,965		—		—			10,965
	$	24,497	$	—	$	(19	)	$	24,478

	December 31, 2019
	Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Fair Value
Assets:
U.S. government securities	$	16,791	$	6	$	—		$	16,797
Corporate bonds		14,050		12		(2	)		14,060
Commercial paper		21,458		—		—			21,458
	$	52,299	$	18	$	(2	)	$	52,315

		Three Months Ended
Operating lease expense	Statement of Operations Location	March 31, 2020
Fixed operating lease expense	Research and development expense		164
	General and administrative expense		86

Variable operating lease expense	Research and development expense		17
	General and administrative expense		9

Total operating lease expense			276

	March 31, 2020
Cash paid for amounts included in the measurement of lease liabilities:
Operating cash flows from operating leases	$	232

Lease Assets and Liabilities	Classification	March 31, 2020
Assets
Operating	Operating lease right of use assets	$	4,765
Financing	Property and equipment, net		937
Total leased assets		$	5,702

Liabilities
Current
Operating	Operating lease liabilities	$	932
Non-Current
Operating	Non-current operating lease liabilities		4,521
Total lease liabilities		$	5,453

Weighted average remaining lease term		7 years
Weighted average discount rate			10.3	%

	March 31, 2020		December 31, 2019
Accrued external research and development expenses	$	10,898	$	17,746
Accrued payroll and related expenses		861		2,630
Accrued professional fees		670		803
Accrued other		429		409
Total Accrued expenses and other current liabilities	$	12,858	$	21,588

	Number of Shares			Weighted Average Exercise Price		Weighted Average Contractual Term		Aggregate Intrinsic Value
						(in years)		(in thousands)
Outstanding as of December 31, 2019		2,969,428		$	8.13		7.94	$	6,689
Granted		810,828			9.30		—		—
Exercised		(91,396	)		5.90		—		—
Forfeited or cancelled		(37,768	)		11.13		—		—
Outstanding as of March 31, 2020		3,651,092		$	8.42	7.94		$	6,996
Outstanding as of March 31, 2020 - vested and expected to vest		3,651,092		$	8.42	8.39		$	6,996
Exercisable at March 31, 2020		1,514,383		$	7.55		7.60	$	2,298,901

	Standalone		Transaction
	Selling		Price
Performance Obligations	Price		Allocated		Recognition Method
License and know-how transfer (1)	$	9,858	$	3,553	Fully satisfied; recognized upon delivery of the license
Exclusive option on SPR741		400		144	Recognized in Q4 2019 upon the return of the IP rights to Northern
Research and development services (2)		3,614		1,303	Recognized over time as services are delivered through the expected completion date of Q3 2020
			$	5,000

Exhibit Number	Exhibit Description	Filed with this Report	Incorporated by Reference herein from Form or Schedule	Filing Date	SEC File / Registration Number

10.1	Consulting Agreement, dated November 4, 2019, by and between the Registrant and Danforth Advisors, LLC	X

31.1	Certification of Principal Executive Officer pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	X

31.2	Certification of Principal Financial Officer pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	X

32.1	Certification of Principal Executive Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	X

32.2	Certification of Principal Financial Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	X

101.INS	XBRL Instance Document	X

101.SCH	XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document	X

101.CAL	XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document	X

101.DEF	XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition	X

101.LAB	XBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase Document	X

101.PRE	XBRL Taxonomy Presentation Linkbase Document	X

	SPERO THERAPEUTICS, INC.

Date: May 8, 2020	By:	/s/ Ankit Mahadevia, M.D.
		Ankit Mahadevia, M.D.
		President and Chief Executive Officer
		(Principal Executive Officer)


Date: May 8, 2020	By:	/s/ Stephen J. DiPalma
		Stephen J. DiPalma
		Interim Chief Financial Officer and Treasurer
		(Principal Financial Officer and Principal Accounting Officer)