Sabre Corporation is a Delaware corporation formed in December 2006. On March 30, 2007, Sabre Corporation acquired Sabre Holdings Corporation (“Sabre Holdings”). Sabre Holdings is the sole direct subsidiary of Sabre Corporation. Sabre GLBL Inc. (“Sabre GLBL”) is the principal operating subsidiary and sole direct subsidiary of Sabre Holdings. Sabre GLBL or its direct or indirect subsidiaries conduct all of our businesses. In these consolidated financial statements, references to “Sabre,” the “Company,” “we,” “our,” “ours,” and “us” refer to Sabre Corporation and its consolidated subsidiaries unless otherwise stated or the context otherwise requires.

We connect people and places with technology that reimagines the business of travel. We operate through two business segments: (i) Travel Solutions, our global travel marketplace for travel suppliers and travel buyers, a broad portfolio of software technology products and solutions for airlines and other travel suppliers, and (ii) Hospitality Solutions, an extensive suite of leading software solutions for hoteliers.

The travel industry continues to be adversely affected by the global health crisis due to the outbreak of the coronavirus, including variants ("COVID-19"), as well as by government directives that have been enacted to slow the spread of the virus. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused major shifts in the travel ecosystem resulting in the changing needs of our airline, hotel and agency customers. In 2020, we experienced significant decreases in transaction-based revenue in our Travel Solutions segment, including increased cancellation activity beyond what was initially estimated, as well as a reduction in SynXis Software and Services revenue in our Hospitality Solutions segment due to a decrease in transaction volumes as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As expected, this pandemic has continued to have a material impact to our consolidated financial results in 2021 and 2022. Despite the continued negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business and global travel volumes, as COVID-19 vaccines have continued to be administered and travel restrictions have been relaxed, we have seen gradual improvement in our key volume metrics during the year ended December 31, 2022 and 2021. With the continued increase in volumes, our incentive consideration costs are also increasing significantly compared to 2020 and 2021.

We believe our cash position and the liquidity measures we have taken will provide additional flexibility as we manage through the industry's recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, we believe that we have resources to sufficiently fund our liquidity requirements over at least the next twelve months; however, given the magnitude of travel decline, the uncertain economic environment and the unknown duration of the COVID-19 impact, we will continue to monitor our liquidity levels and take additional steps should we determine they are necessary.

We completed a strategic realignment ("the Strategic Realignment") of our airline and agency-focused businesses in the third quarter of 2020 to address the changing travel landscape and respond to the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business and cost structure. As a result of the Strategic Realignment, we now operate our business and present our results through two business segments: (i) Travel Solutions, our global travel solutions for travel suppliers and travel buyers, including a broad portfolio of software technology products and solutions for airlines, and (ii) Hospitality Solutions, an extensive suite of leading software solutions for hoteliers. All revenue and expenses previously assigned to the Travel Network and Airline Solutions business segments were consolidated into a unified revenue and expense structure now reported as the Travel Solutions business segment. There were no changes to the historical Hospitality Solutions reporting segment.

The consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“GAAP”). We consolidate all majority-owned subsidiaries and companies over which we exercise control through majority voting rights. No entities are consolidated due to control through operating agreements, financing agreements or as the primary beneficiary of a variable interest entity. The consolidated financial statements include our accounts after elimination of all significant intercompany balances and transactions. All dollar amounts in the financial statements and the tables in the notes, except per share amounts, are stated in thousands of U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. All amounts in the notes reference results from continuing operations unless otherwise indicated.

The preparation of these annual financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires that certain amounts be recorded based on estimates and assumptions made by management. Actual results could differ from these estimates and assumptions. Our accounting policies, that utilize significant estimates and assumptions include, among other things, estimation of the collectability of accounts receivable, estimation of future cancellations of bookings processed through the Sabre GDS, revenue recognition for Software-as-a-Service ("SaaS") arrangements, determination of the fair value of assets and liabilities acquired in a business combination, determination of the fair value of derivatives, the evaluation of the recoverability of the carrying value of intangible assets and goodwill, assumptions utilized in the determination of pension and other postretirement benefit liabilities, the evaluation of the recoverability of capitalized implementation costs, assumptions utilized to evaluate the recoverability of deferred customer advance and discounts, estimation of loss contingencies, and evaluation of uncertainties surrounding the calculation of our tax assets and liabilities.

Within our segments and results of operations, cost of revenue, excluding technology costs, primarily consists of costs associated with the delivery and distribution of our products and services, including employee-related costs for our delivery, customer operations and call center teams, transactional-related costs, including travel agency incentive consideration for reservations made on our global distribution system ("GDS") for Travel Solutions and GDS transaction fees for Hospitality Solutions, amortization of upfront incentive consideration and depreciation and amortization associated with capitalized implementation costs, and certain intangible assets. Technology costs consist of expenses related to third-party providers and employee-related costs to operate technology operations including data processing and hosting, third-party software, other costs associated with the maintenance and minor enhancement of our technology, and depreciation and amortization associated with software developed for internal use that supports our products, assets supporting our technology platform, businesses and systems and intangible assets related to technology. Technology costs also include costs associated with our technology transformation efforts. Selling, general and administrative expenses consist of professional service fees, certain settlement charges or reimbursements, costs to defend legal disputes, provision for expected credit losses, other overhead costs, personnel-related expenses, including stock-based compensation, for employees engaged in sales, sales support, account management and who administratively support the business in finance, legal, human resources, information technology and communications, and depreciation and amortization associated with property and equipment, acquired customer relationships, trademarks and brand names.

Travel Solutions and Hospitality Solutions’ revenue recognition is primarily driven by GDS and reservation system transactions. Timing of revenue recognition is primarily based on the consistent provision of services in a stand-ready series SaaS environment and the amount of revenue recognized varies with the volume of transactions processed. Revenue is recognized if it is not considered probable of reversal.

A performance obligation is a promise in a contract to transfer a distinct good or service to the customer and is the unit of account under Accounting Standards Codification ("ASC") 606. The transaction price is allocated to each performance obligation and recognized as revenue when, or as, the performance obligation is satisfied. Most of our contracts for GDS services and central reservation system (CRS) services for Hospitality Solutions have a single stand-ready series performance obligation. For Travel Solutions' IT Solutions revenue, many of our contracts may have multiple performance obligations, which generally include software and product solutions through SaaS and hosted delivery, and other service fees. We also evaluate performance obligations across multiple agreements when entered into with the same customer at or near the same time.

We recognize revenue from usage-based fees for the use of the software which represents a stand-ready performance obligation. Variability in the usage-based fee that does not align with the value provided to the customer can result in a difference between billings to the customer and the timing of contract performance and revenue recognition, which may result in the recognition of a contract asset. This can result in a requirement to forecast expected usage-based fees and volumes over the contract term in order to determine the rate for revenue recognition. This variable consideration is constrained if there is an inability to reliably forecast this revenue or if future reversal is considered probable. Additionally, we may occasionally recognize revenue in the current period for performance obligations partially or fully satisfied in the previous periods resulting from changes in estimates of the transaction price, including any changes to our assessment of whether an estimate of variable consideration is constrained.

Travel Solutions—Travel Solutions generates distribution revenue for bookings made through our GDS (e.g., Air, and Lodging, Ground and Sea ("LGS")). GDS services link and engage transactions between travel agents and travel suppliers. Revenue is generated from contracts with the travel suppliers as each booking is made or transaction occurs and represents a stand-ready series performance obligation where our systems perform the same service each day for the customer, based on the customer’s level of usage. Distribution revenue associated with car rental, hotel transactions and other travel providers is recognized at the time the reservation is used by the customer. Distribution revenue associated with airline travel reservations is recognized at the time of booking of the reservation, net of estimated future cancellations. Cancellations prior to the day of departure are estimated based on historical and expected levels of cancellation rates, adjusted to take into account any recent factors which could cause a change in those rates.

Travel Solutions also generates IT solutions revenue from its product offerings including reservation systems for full-service and low-cost carriers, commercial and operations products, agency solutions and booking data. Reservation system revenue is primarily generated based on the number of passengers boarded. Generally, customers are charged a fixed, upfront solutions fee and a recurring usage-based fee for the use of the software in a stand-ready series performance obligation. In the context of both our reservation systems and our commercial and operations products, upfront solutions fees are recognized primarily on a straight-line basis over the relevant contract term, upon cut-over of the primary SaaS solution.

Hospitality Solutions—Hospitality Solutions provides technology solutions and other professional services, through SaaS and hosted delivery models, to hoteliers around the world. Generally, customers are charged an upfront solutions fee and a recurring usage-based fee for the use of the software, which represents a stand-ready series performance obligation where our systems perform the same service each day for the customer, based on the customer’s level of usage. Upfront solutions fees are recognized primarily on a straight-line basis over the relevant contract term, upon cut-over of the primary SaaS solution.

Deferred customer advances and discounts are amortized against revenue in future periods as the related revenue is earned. Our contract assets include revenue recognized for services already transferred to a customer, for which the fulfillment of another contractual performance obligation is required, before we have the unconditional right to bill and collect based on contract terms. Contract assets and deferred customer advances and discounts are reviewed for recoverability on a periodic basis based on a review of impairment indicators, future contracted revenues and estimated direct costs of the contract when a significant event occurs that could impact the recoverability of the assets, such as a significant contract modification or early renewal of contract terms. For the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, we did not impair any of these assets as a result of the related contract becoming uncollectible, modified or canceled. Contracts are priced to generate total revenues over the life of the contract that exceed any discounts or advances provided and any upfront costs incurred to implement the customer contract.

Travel Solutions also provides other services including development labor or professional consulting. These services can be sold separately or with other products and services, and Travel Solutions may bundle multiple technology solutions in one arrangement with these other services. Revenue from other services consisting of development services that represent minor configuration or professional consulting is generally recognized over the period the services are performed or upon completed delivery.

Travel Solutions also directly licenses certain software to its customers where the customer obtains on-site control of the license. Revenue from software license fees is recognized when the customer gains control of the software enabling them to directly use the software and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits. Fees for ongoing software maintenance are recognized ratably over the life of the contract. Under these arrangements, often we are entitled to minimum fees which are collected over the term of the agreement, while the revenue from the license is recognized at the point when the customer gains control, which results in current and long-term unbilled receivables for these arrangements.

Variability in the amounts billed to the customer and revenue recognized coincides with the customer’s level of usage with the exception of upfront solution fees, non-usage based variable consideration, license and maintenance agreements and other services including development labor and professional consulting. Contracts with the same customer which are entered into at or around the same period are analyzed for revenue recognition purposes on a combined basis across our businesses which can impact timing of revenue recognition.

For contracts with multiple performance obligations, we account for separate performance obligations on an individual basis with value assigned to each performance obligation based on our best estimate of relative standalone selling price ("SSP"). Judgment is required to determine the SSP for each distinct performance obligation. SSP is assessed annually using a historical analysis of contracts with customers executed in the most recently completed calendar year to determine the range of selling prices applicable to a distinct good or service. In making these judgments, we analyze various factors, including discounting practices, price lists, contract prices, value differentiators, customer segmentation and overall market and economic conditions. Based on these results, the estimated SSP is set for each distinct product or service delivered to customers. As our market strategies evolve, we may modify pricing practices in the future which could result in changes to SSP.

Revenue recognition from our Travel Solutions business requires significant judgments such as identifying distinct performance obligations including estimating the total contract consideration and allocating amounts to each distinct performance obligation, determining whether variable pricing within a contract meets the allocation objective, assessing revenue for constraint particularly due to impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on our customers and contracts and forecasting future volumes. For a small number of our contracts, we are required to forecast volumes as a result of pricing variability within the contract in order to calculate the rate for revenue recognition. Any changes in these judgments and estimates could have an impact on the revenue recognized in future periods.

We evaluate whether it is appropriate to record the gross amount of our revenues and related costs by considering whether the entity is a principal (gross presentation) or an agent (net presentation) by evaluating the nature of our promise to the customer. We report revenue net of any revenue-based taxes assessed by governmental authorities that are imposed on and concurrent with specific revenue producing transactions.

Certain service contracts with significant travel agency customers contain booking productivity clauses and other provisions that allow travel agency customers to receive cash payments or other consideration. We establish liabilities for these commitments and recognize the related expense as these travel agencies earn incentive consideration based on the applicable contractual terms. Periodically, we make cash payments to these travel agencies at inception or modification of a service contract which are capitalized and amortized to cost of revenue over the expected life of the service contract, which is generally three to ten years. Deferred charges related to such contracts are recorded in other assets, net on the consolidated balance sheets. The service contracts are priced so that the additional airline and other booking fees generated over the life of the contract will exceed the cost of the incentive consideration provided. Incentive consideration paid to the travel agency represents a commission paid to the travel agency for booking travel on our GDS. Similar to the revenue cancellation reserve, we record a reduction to incentive expense within cost of revenue, excluding technology costs for amounts considered probable of recovery from travel agencies for incentives previously paid on cancelled bookings.

We are exposed to credit losses primarily through our sales of services provided to participants in the travel and transportation industry, which we consider to be our singular portfolio segment. We develop and document our methodology used in determining the allowance for credit losses at the portfolio segment level. Within the travel portfolio segment, we identify airlines, hoteliers and travel agencies as each presenting unique risk characteristics associated with historical credit loss patterns unique to each and we determine the adequacy of our allowance for credit loss by assessing the risks and losses inherent in our receivables related to each.

The majority of our receivables are trade receivables due in less than one year. In addition to our short-term trade and unbilled receivables, our receivables also include contract assets and long-term trade unbilled receivables. See Note 2. Revenue from Contracts with Customers for more information about these financial assets. Contract assets and long-term receivables are reviewed for recoverability on a periodic basis based on a review of subjective factors and trends in collection data including the aging of our trade receivable balances with these customers and expectations of future global economic growth. Our credit risk is mitigated with carriers who use the Airline Clearing House (“ACH”) and other similar clearing houses, as ACH requires participants to deposit certain balances into their demand deposit accounts by certain deadlines, which facilitates a timely settlement process. For those carriers from which we do not collect payments through the ACH or other similar clearing houses, our credit risk is higher. We monitor our ongoing credit exposure for these carriers through active review of customer balances against contract terms and due dates with account management. Our activities include established collection processes, account reconciliations, dispute resolution and payment confirmations. We may employ collection agencies and legal counsel to pursue recovery of defaulted receivables. We generally do not require security or collateral from our customers as a condition of sale.

We evaluate the collectability of our receivables based on a combination of factors. In circumstances where we are aware of a specific customer’s inability to meet its financial obligations to us, such as bankruptcy filings or failure to pay amounts due to us or others, we specifically provide for credit losses against amounts due to reduce the recorded receivable to the amount we reasonably determine will be collected. For all other customers, we record reserves for receivables, including unbilled receivables and contract assets, based on historical experience and the length of time the receivables are past due. The estimate of credit losses is developed by analyzing historical twelve-month collection rates and adjusting for current customer-specific factors indicating financial instability and other macroeconomic factors that correlate with the expected collectability of our receivables.

Receivables are considered to be delinquent when contractual payment terms are exceeded. All receivables aged over twelve months are fully reserved. Receivables are written off against the allowance when it is probable that all remaining contractual payments will not be collected as evidenced by factors such as the extended age of the balance, the exhaustion of collection efforts, and the lack of ongoing contact or billing with the customer.

We recognize all derivatives on the consolidated balance sheets at fair value. If the derivative is designated as a hedge, depending on the nature of the hedge, changes in the fair value of derivatives are offset against the change in fair value of the hedged item through earnings (a “fair value hedge”) or recognized in other comprehensive income (loss) until the hedged item is recognized in earnings (a “cash flow hedge”). For derivative instruments not designated as hedging instruments, the gain or loss resulting from the change in fair value is recognized in current earnings during the period of change. No hedging ineffectiveness was recorded in earnings during the periods presented.

We capitalize certain costs related to our infrastructure, software applications and reservation systems under authoritative guidance on software developed for internal use. Capitalizable costs consist of (a) certain external direct costs of materials and services incurred in developing or obtaining internal use computer software and (b) payroll and payroll related costs for employees who are directly associated with and who devote time to our GDS and SaaS-related development projects. Costs incurred during the preliminary project stage or costs incurred for data conversion activities and training, maintenance and general and administrative or overhead costs are expensed as incurred. Costs that cannot be separated between maintenance of, and relatively minor upgrades and enhancements to, internal use software are also expensed as incurred. See Note 5. Balance Sheet Components, for amounts capitalized as property and equipment in our consolidated balance sheets. Depreciation and amortization of property and equipment totaled $90 million, $154 million and $248 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. Amortization of software developed for internal use, included in depreciation and amortization, totaled $74 million, $132 million and $203 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. During the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, we capitalized $64 million, $39 million, and $41 million, respectively, related to software developed for internal use.

of other assets may not be recoverable. We did not record any property and equipment impairment charges for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021. During the year ended December 31, 2020, we recorded an impairment charge related to our Hospitality Solutions business of $5 million associated with software developed for internal use based on our analysis of the recoverability of such amounts. This impairment charge is recorded within technology costs in our consolidated statement of operations. Additionally, we recorded a $4 million impairment charge associated with leasehold improvements and furniture and fixtures of abandoned leased office space during the year ended December 31, 2020 which is recorded within selling, general, and administrative expenses in our consolidated statement of operations.

We lease certain facilities under long term operating leases. We determine if an arrangement is a lease at inception. We evaluate lessee agreements with a minimum term greater than one year for recording on the balance sheet. Operating lease assets are included in operating lease right-of-use (“ROU”) assets within other assets, net and operating lease liabilities are included in other current liabilities and other noncurrent liabilities in our consolidated balance sheets. Finance lease assets are included in property and equipment with associated liabilities included in current portion of debt and long-term debt in our consolidated balance sheets.

ROU assets represent our right to use an underlying asset for the lease term and lease liabilities represent our obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. Operating lease ROU assets and liabilities are recognized at the commencement date based on the present value of lease payments over the lease term. As most of our leases do not provide an implicit rate, we use our internal borrowing rate for leases with a lease term of less than or equal to five years. For leases with a lease term greater than five years, we use our incremental borrowing rate based on the estimated rate of interest for corporate bond borrowings over a similar term of the lease payments. Certain of our lease agreements contain renewal options, early termination options and/or payment escalations based on fixed annual increases, local consumer price index changes or market rental reviews. We recognize rent expense with fixed rate increases and/or fixed rent reductions on a straight-line basis over the term of the lease.

Business combinations are accounted for under the acquisition method of accounting. Under this method, the assets acquired and liabilities assumed are recognized at their respective fair values as of the date of acquisition. The excess, if any, of the acquisition price over the fair values of the assets acquired and liabilities assumed is recorded as goodwill. For significant acquisitions, we utilize third-party appraisal firms to assist us in determining the fair values for certain assets acquired and liabilities assumed. The measurement of these fair values requires us to make significant estimates and assumptions which are inherently uncertain.

Adjustments to the fair values of assets acquired and liabilities assumed are made until we obtain all relevant information regarding the facts and circumstances that existed as of the acquisition date (the “measurement period”), not to exceed one year from the date of the acquisition. We recognize measurement-period adjustments in the period in which we determine the amounts, including the effect on earnings of any amounts we would have recorded in previous periods if the accounting had been completed at the acquisition date.

We periodically divest assets that we do not consider core to our business strategy. The carrying value of the net assets held for sale are compared to their fair value, less cost to sell, and any initial adjustments of the carrying value to fair value, less cost to sell are recorded when the held for sale criteria are met. Gains or losses associated with the disposal of assets held for sale are recorded within other operating costs. When the net assets constitute a business, we allocate a portion of the goodwill from the related reporting unit to the carrying value of the net assets held for sale. The amount of goodwill allocated is based on the relative fair values of the business to be disposed of and the portion of the reporting unit that will be retained.

Goodwill is the excess of the purchase price over the fair value of identifiable tangible and intangible assets acquired in business combinations. Goodwill is not amortized but is reviewed for impairment on an annual basis or more frequently if events and circumstances indicate the carrying amount may not be recoverable. Definite-lived intangible assets are amortized on a straight-line basis and assigned useful economic lives of two to thirty years, depending on classification. The useful economic lives are evaluated on an annual basis.

We perform our annual goodwill impairment assessment as of October 1 of each year and interim assessments as required upon the identification of a triggering event. We begin with the qualitative assessment of whether it is more likely than not that a reporting unit’s fair value is less than its carrying value before applying the quantitative assessment described below. If it is determined through the evaluation of events or circumstances that the carrying value may not be recoverable, we perform a comparison of the estimated fair value of the reporting unit to which the goodwill has been assigned to the sum of the carrying value of the assets and liabilities of that unit. If the sum of the carrying value of the assets and liabilities of a reporting unit exceeds the estimated fair value of that reporting unit, the carrying value of the reporting unit’s goodwill is reduced to its fair value through an adjustment to the goodwill balance, resulting in an impairment charge. We have two reporting units associated with our continuing operations: Travel Solutions and Hospitality Solutions. We did not record any goodwill impairment charges for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. See Note 4. Goodwill and Intangible Assets for additional information.

Definite-lived intangible assets are evaluated for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of definite lived intangible assets used in combination to generate cash flows largely independent of other assets may not be recoverable. If impairment indicators exist for definite-lived intangible assets, the undiscounted future cash flows associated with the expected service potential of the assets are compared to the carrying value of the assets. If our projection of undiscounted future cash flows is in excess of the carrying value of the intangible assets, no impairment charge is recorded. If our projection of undiscounted cash flows is less than the carrying value, the intangible assets are measured at fair value and an impairment charge is recorded based on the excess of the carrying value of the assets to its fair value. We did not record material intangible asset impairment charges for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. See Note 4. Goodwill and Intangible Assets for additional information.

We utilize the equity method to account for our interests in entities that we do not control but over which we exert significant influence. We periodically evaluate investments accounted for under the equity method for impairment by reviewing updated financial information provided by the investee, including valuation information from new financing transactions by the investee and information relating to competitors of investees when available. We own voting interests in various national marketing companies ranging from 20% to 49%, a voting interest of 40% in ESS Elektroniczne Systemy Spzedazy Sp. zo.o, and a voting interest of 20% in Asiana Sabre, Inc. The carrying value of these equity method investments in joint ventures amounts to $22 million as of December 31, 2022 and $23 million as of December 31, 2021.

We incur contract acquisition costs related to new contracts with our customers in the form of sales commissions based on estimated contract value for our Travel Solutions and Hospitality Solutions businesses. These costs are capitalized and reviewed for impairment on an annual basis. We generally amortize these costs, and those for renewals, over the average contract term for those businesses, excluding commissions on contracts with a term of one year or less, which are generally expensed in the period earned and recorded within selling, general and administrative expenses.

We incur upfront costs to implement new customer contracts under our SaaS revenue model. We capitalize these costs, including (a) certain external direct costs of materials and services incurred to implement a customer contract and (b) payroll and payroll related costs for employees who are directly associated with and devote time to implementation activities. Capitalized implementation costs are amortized on a straight-line basis over the related contract term, ranging from three to ten years, as they are recoverable through deferred or future revenues associated with the relevant contract. These assets are reviewed for recoverability on a periodic basis or when an event occurs that could impact the recoverability of the assets, such as a significant contract modification or early renewal of contract terms. Recoverability is measured based on the future estimated revenue and direct costs of the contract compared to the capitalized implementation costs. See Note 5. Balance Sheet Components and Note 2. Revenue from Contracts with Customers, for additional information. Amortization of capitalized implementation costs, included in depreciation and amortization, totaled $37 million, $35 million and $37 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively.

Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are determined based on differences between financial reporting and income tax basis of assets and liabilities and are measured using the tax rates and laws enacted at the time of such determination. We regularly review our deferred tax assets for recoverability and a valuation allowance is provided when it is more likely than not that some portion, or all, of a deferred tax asset will not be realized. In assessing the need for a valuation allowance, we make estimates and assumptions regarding projected future taxable income, the reversal of deferred tax liabilities and implementation of tax planning strategies. We reassess these assumptions regularly which could cause an increase or decrease to the valuation allowance, resulting in an increase or decrease in the effective tax rate, and could materially impact our results of operations.

We recognize liabilities when we determine a tax position is not more likely than not to be sustained upon examination by the tax authorities. We use significant judgment in determining whether a tax position's technical merits are more likely than not to be sustained and in measuring the amount of tax benefit that qualifies for recognition. For matters that are determined will more likely than not be sustained, we measure the tax benefit as the largest amount which is more than 50% likely of being realized upon ultimate settlement. We recognize penalties and interest accrued related to income taxes as a component of the

We recognize the funded status of our defined benefit pension plans and other postretirement benefit plans in our consolidated balance sheets. The funded status is the difference between the fair value of plan assets and the benefit obligation as of the balance sheet date. The fair value of plan assets represents the cumulative contributions made to fund the pension and other postretirement benefit plans which are invested primarily in domestic and foreign equities and fixed income securities. The benefit obligation of our pension and other postretirement benefit plans are actuarially determined using certain assumptions approved by us. The benefit obligation is adjusted annually in the fourth quarter to reflect actuarial changes and may also be adjusted upon the adoption of plan amendments. These adjustments are initially recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) and are subsequently amortized over the life expectancy of the plan participants as a component of net periodic benefit costs.

We account for our stock awards and options by recognizing compensation expense, measured at the grant date based on the fair value of the award, on a straight-line basis over the award vesting period, giving consideration as to whether the amount of compensation cost recognized at any date is equal to the portion of grant date value that is vested at that date. Compensation expense on stock awards subject to performance conditions, which is based on the quantity of awards we have determined are probable of vesting, is recognized over the longer of the estimated performance goal attainment period or time vesting period. We recognize equity-based compensation expense net of any actual forfeitures.

We measure the grant date fair value of stock option awards as calculated by the Black-Scholes option-pricing model which requires certain subjective assumptions, including the expected term of the option, the expected volatility of our common stock, risk-free interest rates and expected dividend yield. The expected term is estimated by using the “simplified method” which is based on the midpoint between the vesting date and the expiration of the contractual term. We utilized the simplified method due to the lack of sufficient historical experience under our current grant terms. The expected volatility is based on the historical volatility of our stock price. The expected risk-free interest rates are based on the yields of U.S. Treasury securities with maturities appropriate for the expected term of the stock options. The expected dividend yield was based on the calculated yield on our common stock at the time of grant assuming quarterly dividends totaling $0.14 per share for awards granted prior to the suspension of our common stock dividends on March 16, 2020. Subsequent to March 16, 2020, a zero expected dividend was used.

We remeasure foreign currency transactions into the relevant functional currency and record the foreign currency transaction gains or losses as a component of other, net in our consolidated statements of operations. We translate the financial statements of our non-U.S. dollar functional currency foreign subsidiaries into U.S. dollars in consolidation and record the translation gains or losses as a component of other comprehensive income (loss). Translation gains or losses of foreign subsidiaries related to divested businesses are reclassified into earnings as a component of other, net in our consolidated statements of operations once the liquidation of the respective foreign subsidiaries is substantially complete.

In March 2020, the Financial Accounting Standards Board ("FASB") issued updated guidance which provides optional expedients and exceptions for applying U.S. GAAP to existing contracts, hedging relationships, and other transactions affected by the discontinuation of the London Interbank Offered Rate (“LIBOR”) or by another reference rate expected to be discontinued, if certain criteria are met. This standard is effective for all entities upon issuance and is optional through December 31, 2024. As of December 31, 2022, the options under this standard have not been applicable. We continue to monitor our contracts and transactions for potential application of this guidance.

In March 2022, the FASB issued updated guidance on derivatives and hedging which allows entities to apply fair value hedging to closed portfolios of prepayable financial assets without having to consider prepayment risk or credit risk when measuring the assets. The amendments allow multiple hedged layers to be designated for a single closed portfolio for financial assets or one or more beneficial interests secured by a portfolio of financial instruments. As a result, an entity can achieve hedge accounting for hedges of a greater proportion of the interest rate risk inherent in the assets included in the closed portfolio, further aligning hedge accounting with risk management strategies. The standard is effective for public entities for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2022, with early adoption permitted. We adopted this standard in the first quarter of 2022 and there was no impact to our consolidated financial statements as a result of the adoption.

In December 2021, the FASB issued guidance that requires an entity (acquirer) to recognize and measure contract assets and contract liabilities acquired in a business combination in accordance with ASC 606: Revenue from contracts with customers. We adopted this standard in the fourth quarter of 2021, which did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In December 2019, the FASB issued updated guidance which simplifies the accounting for income taxes, eliminates certain exceptions within existing income tax guidance, and clarifies certain aspects of the current guidance to promote consistency among reporting entities. We adopted this standard prospectively in the first quarter of 2021, which did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In June 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance for the measurement of credit losses for most financial assets and certain other instruments that are not measured at fair value through net income. Under this updated standard, the current "incurred loss" approach is replaced with an "expected loss" model for instruments measured at amortized cost. We adopted this standard in the first quarter of 2020, resulting in a $10 million increase in the allowance for credit losses, partially offset by a $1 million decrease in deferred tax liabilities and a $1 million increase in accounts receivable with a corresponding increase of approximately $8 million in our opening retained deficit as of January 1, 2020. See Note 7. Credit Losses for more information on the impacts from adoption and ongoing considerations.