(6) Deferred Acquisition Costs

The following table presents the activity impacting DAC as of and for the years ended December 31:


(Amounts in millions)	2017			2016			2015
Unamortized balance as of January 1	$	4,241		$	4,569		$	5,200
Impact of foreign currency translation		12			3			(23	)
Costs deferred		88			150			295
Amortization, net of interest accretion		(342	)		(481	)		(448	)
Impairment		—			—			(455	)

Unamortized balance as of December 31		3,999			4,241			4,569
Accumulated effect of net unrealized investment (gains) losses		(1,670	)		(670	)		(171	)

Balance as of December 31	$	2,329		$	3,571		$	4,398

We regularly review DAC to determine if it is recoverable from future income. In 2017 and 2016, we performed loss recognition testing and determined that we had premium deficiencies in our fixed immediate annuity products. As of June 30, 2016, we wrote off the entire DAC balance for our fixed immediate annuity products of $14 million through amortization. In addition, as a result of our fixed immediate annuity loss recognition testing as of December 31, 2017 and 2016, we increased our future policy benefit reserves and recognized expenses of $89 million and $24 million, respectively. The premium deficiency test results were primarily driven by the low interest rate environment and updated assumptions to future policy charges. As of December 31, 2017 and 2016, we believe all of our other businesses had sufficient future income and therefore the related DAC was recoverable.

In addition, we are required to analyze the impacts from net unrealized investment gains and losses on our available-for-sale investment securities backing insurance liabilities, as if those unrealized investment gains and losses were realized. These “shadow accounting” adjustments result in the recognition of unrealized gains and losses on related insurance assets and liabilities in a manner consistent with the recognition of the unrealized gains and losses on available-for-sale investment securities within the statements of comprehensive income and changes in equity. Changes to net unrealized investment (gains) losses may increase or decrease the ending DAC balance. Similar to a loss recognition event, when the DAC balance is reduced to zero, additional insurance liabilities are established if necessary. Unlike a loss recognition event, based on changes in net unrealized investment (gains) losses, these shadow adjustments may reverse from period to period. As of December 31, 2017, due primarily to the decline in interest rates increasing unrealized investments gains, we reduced the DAC balance of our long-term care insurance business to zero, a cumulative decrease in the accumulated effect of net unrealized investment gains of approximately $1.3 billion out of the total $1.7 billion in the table above, with an offsetting amount recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). In addition, we increased our future policy benefit reserves in our long-term care insurance business by a cumulative amount of approximately $1.0 billion as of December 31, 2017, with an offsetting amount recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). There was no impact to net income (loss).

In the fourth quarter of 2016, as part of our annual review of assumptions, we had an increase in DAC amortization in our universal and term universal life insurance products by $144 million reflecting updated assumptions primarily for mortality experience in older age populations, partially offset by updated assumptions related to future policy charges. In the fourth quarter of 2015, as part of our annual review of assumptions, we increased DAC amortization by $109 million in our universal life insurance products, reflecting updated assumptions for persistency, long-term interest rates, mortality and other refinements as well as corrections related to reinsurance inputs.

On September 30, 2015, Genworth Life and Annuity Insurance Company (“GLAIC”), our indirect wholly-owned subsidiary, entered into a Master Agreement (the “Master Agreement”) for a life block transaction with Protective Life Insurance Company (“Protective Life”). Pursuant to the Master Agreement, GLAIC and Protective Life agreed to enter into a reinsurance agreement (the “Reinsurance Agreement”), under the terms of which Protective Life would coinsure certain term life insurance business of GLAIC, net of third-party reinsurance. The Reinsurance Agreement was entered into in January 2016. In connection with entering into the Master Agreement, we recorded a DAC impairment of $455 million as a result of loss recognition testing of certain term life insurance policies as part of this life block transaction. As of December 31, 2015, we believe all of our other businesses had sufficient future income and therefore the related DAC was recoverable.