Significant accounting policies and practices (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2023

Nature of operations and basis of consolidation

(a)Nature of operations and basis of consolidation

Berkshire Hathaway Inc. (“Berkshire”) is a holding company owning subsidiaries engaged in numerous diverse business activities, including insurance and reinsurance, freight rail transportation, utilities and energy, manufacturing, service and retailing. In these notes the terms “us,” “we,” or “our” refer to Berkshire and its consolidated subsidiaries. Further information regarding our reportable business segments is contained in Note 26. Information concerning significant business acquisitions completed over the past three years appears in Note 2. We believe that reporting the Railroad, Utilities and Energy subsidiaries separately is appropriate given the relative significance of their long-lived assets, capital expenditures and debt, which is not guaranteed by Berkshire.

The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements include the accounts of Berkshire consolidated with the accounts of all subsidiaries and affiliates in which we hold a controlling financial interest as of the financial statement date. Normally a controlling financial interest reflects ownership of a majority of the voting interests. We consolidate variable interest entities (“VIE”) when we possess both the power to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly affect its economic performance, and we (a) are obligated to absorb the losses that could be significant to the VIE or (b) hold the right to receive benefits from the VIE that could be significant to the VIE. Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated. Certain immaterial balances in the Consolidated Financial Statements have been reclassified in prior years to conform to current year presentations.

Use of estimates in preparation of financial statements

(b)Use of estimates in preparation of financial statements

We prepare our Consolidated Financial Statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“GAAP”) which requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of certain assets and liabilities at the balance sheet date and the reported amounts of certain revenues and expenses during the period. Our estimates of unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses are subject to considerable estimation error due to the inherent uncertainty in projecting ultimate claim costs. In addition, estimates and assumptions associated with determinations of deferred charges on retroactive reinsurance contracts, fair values of certain financial instruments and evaluations of goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets for impairment require considerable judgment. Actual results may differ from the estimates used in preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements.

Our operating businesses have been impacted to varying degrees in recent years by government and private sector actions to mitigate the adverse economic effects of the COVID-19 virus and its variants as well as by the development of geopolitical conflicts, supply chain disruptions and government actions to slow inflation. The economic effects from these events over longer terms cannot be reasonably estimated at this time. Accordingly, significant estimates used in the preparation of our Consolidated Financial Statements, including those associated with evaluations of certain long-lived assets, goodwill and other intangible assets for impairment, expected credit losses on amounts owed to us and the estimations of certain losses assumed under insurance and reinsurance contracts, may be subject to significant adjustments in future periods.

Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills

(c)Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills

Cash equivalents consist of demand deposit and money market accounts and investments with maturities of three months or less when purchased. Short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills have maturities exceeding three months and less than one year at the time of purchase.

Investments under the equity method

(f)Investments under the equity method

We utilize the equity method to account for investments when we possess the ability to exercise significant influence, but not control, over the operating and financial policies of the investee. The ability to exercise significant influence is presumed when the investor possesses more than 20% of the voting interests of the investee. This presumption may be overcome based on specific facts and circumstances that demonstrate that the ability to exercise significant influence is restricted. We apply the equity method to investments in common stock and other investments when such investments possess substantially identical subordinated interests to common stock, and do not apply the equity method to investments that are not in-substance common stock as defined by GAAP.

In applying the equity method, we record the investment at cost and subsequently increase or decrease the carrying amount of the investment by our proportionate share of the net earnings or losses and other comprehensive income of the investee. We record dividends or other equity distributions as reductions in the carrying value of the investment. If net losses reduce our carrying amount to zero, additional net losses may be recorded if other investments in the investee are at-risk, even if we have not committed to provide financial support to the investee. Such additional equity method losses are based upon the change in our claim on the investee’s book value.

Loans and finance receivables

(g)Loans and finance receivables

Loans and finance receivables are primarily manufactured home loans, and to a lesser extent, commercial loans and site-built home loans. We carry substantially all loans and finance receivables at amortized cost, net of allowances for expected credit losses, based on our ability and intent to hold such loans to maturity. Acquisition costs and loan origination and commitment costs paid and fees received, as well as acquisition premiums or discounts, are amortized to investment income as yield adjustments over the lives of the loans.

Measurements of expected credit losses include provisions for non-collection, whether the risk is probable or remote. Expected credit losses on manufactured home loans are based on the net present value of future principal payments less estimated expenses related to the charge-off and foreclosure of expected uncollectible loans and include provisions for loans that are not in foreclosure. Our principal credit quality indicator is whether the loans are performing. Expected credit loss estimates consider historical default rates, collateral recovery rates, historical runoff rates, interest rates, reductions of future cash flows for modified loans and the historical time elapsed from last payment until foreclosure, among other factors. In addition, our estimates consider current conditions and reasonable and supportable forecasts.

Loans are considered delinquent when payments are more than 30 days past due. We place loans over 90 days past due on nonaccrual status and accrued but uncollected interest is reversed. Subsequent collections on the loans are first applied to the principal and interest owed for the most delinquent amount. We resume interest income accrual once a loan is less than 90 days delinquent.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices

(g)Loans and finance receivables

Loans are considered non-performing when the foreclosure process has started. Once a loan is in the process of foreclosure, interest income is not recognized until the foreclosure is cured or the loan is modified. Once a modification is complete, interest income is recognized based on the terms of the new loan. Foreclosed loans are charged off when the collateral is sold. Loans not in foreclosure are evaluated for charge-off based on individual circumstances concerning the future collectability of the loan and the condition of the collateral securing the loan.

Other receivables

(h)Other receivables

Other receivables include balances due from customers, insurance premiums receivable and reinsurance losses recoverable, as well as other receivables. Trade receivables, insurance premiums receivables and other receivables are primarily short-term in nature with stated collection terms of less than one year from the date of origination. Reinsurance recoverables are comprised of amounts ceded under reinsurance contracts or pursuant to mandatory government-sponsored insurance programs. Reinsurance recoverables relate to unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses arising from property and casualty contracts and benefits under life and health contracts. Receivables are stated net of estimated allowances for uncollectible balances.

We measure expected credit losses primarily utilizing credit loss history. In addition, our credit loss estimates consider current conditions and reasonable and supportable forecasts. In evaluating expected credit losses of reinsurance recoverables on unpaid losses, we review the credit quality of the counterparty and consider right-of-offset provisions within reinsurance contracts and other forms of credit enhancement including collateral, guarantees and other available information. We charge off receivables against the allowances after reasonable collection efforts are exhausted.

Derivatives

(i)Derivatives

We carry assets and liabilities arising from derivative contracts at fair value in other assets and accounts payable, accruals and other liabilities in our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Balances are net of reductions permitted under master netting agreements with counterparties. We record the changes in fair value of derivative contracts that do not qualify as hedging instruments for financial reporting purposes in earnings or, if such contracts involve our regulated utilities subsidiaries, as regulatory assets or liabilities when inclusion in regulated rates is probable.

Fair value measurements

(j)Fair value measurements

As defined under GAAP, fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability between market participants in the principal market or in the most advantageous market when no principal market exists. Adjustments to transaction prices or quoted market prices may be required in illiquid or disorderly markets when estimating fair value. In such circumstances, alternative valuation techniques may be appropriate to determine the value that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction. Market participants are assumed to be independent, knowledgeable, and able and willing to transact an exchange and not acting under duress. Our nonperformance or credit risk is considered in determining the fair value of liabilities. Considerable judgment may be required in interpreting market data used to develop the estimates of fair value. Accordingly, estimates of fair value presented herein are not necessarily indicative of the amounts that could be realized in a current or future market exchange.

Inventories

(k)Inventories

Inventories consist of manufactured goods, goods or products acquired for resale and homes constructed for sale. Manufactured inventory costs include materials, direct and indirect labor and factory overhead. At December 31, 2023, we used the last-in-first-out (“LIFO”) method to value approximately 30% of consolidated inventories with the remainder primarily determined under first-in-first-out and average cost methods. Non-LIFO inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. The excess of current or replacement costs over costs determined under LIFO was approximately $2.3 billion as of December 31, 2023 and $2.5 billion as of December 31, 2022.

Property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease

(l)Property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease

We use property, plant and equipment in our operations. We also own equipment that we lease to others under lease contracts. We record additions to such property at cost, which includes asset additions, improvements and betterments. With respect to constructed assets, all materials, direct labor and contract services as well as certain indirect costs are capitalized. Indirect costs include interest over the construction period. With respect to constructed assets of our utility and energy subsidiaries that are subject to authoritative guidance for regulated operations, capitalized costs also include an allowance for funds used during construction, which represents the cost of equity funds used to finance the construction of the regulated facilities. Normal repairs and maintenance and other costs that do not improve the property, extend its useful life or otherwise do not meet capitalization criteria are charged to expense as incurred.

Depreciation of assets of our regulated utilities and railroad is generally determined using group depreciation methods where rates are based on periodic depreciation studies approved by the applicable regulator. Under group depreciation, a composite rate is applied to the gross investment in a particular class of property, despite differences in the service life or salvage value of individual property units within the same class. When such assets are retired or sold, no gain or loss is recognized. Gains or losses on disposals of all other assets are recorded through earnings.

Ranges of estimated useful lives of depreciable assets unique to our railroad business are as follows: track structure and other roadway – 10 to 100 years and locomotives, freight cars and other equipment – 6 to 45 years. Ranges of estimated useful lives of assets unique to our utilities and energy businesses are as follows: utility generation, transmission and distribution systems – 5 to 80 years, interstate natural gas pipeline assets – 3 to 80 years, independent power plants and other assets – 2 to 50 years, buildings and improvements – 10 to 30 years and machinery, equipment and other – 3 to 10 years. We depreciate property, plant and equipment used by our other businesses to the estimated salvage value primarily using the straight-line method over estimated service lives. Ranges of estimated service lives of depreciable assets used in our other businesses are as follows: buildings and improvements – 5 to 50 years, machinery and equipment – 3 to 25 years and furniture, fixtures and other – 3 to 15 years. We depreciate the equipment held for lease to estimated salvage value primarily using the straight-line method over estimated useful lives ranging from 3 to 35 years. We use declining balance depreciation methods for assets when the revenue-earning power of the asset is greater during the earlier years of its life.

We evaluate property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease for impairment when events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value of such assets may not be recoverable or when the assets are held for sale. Upon the occurrence of a triggering event, we assess whether the estimated undiscounted cash flows expected from the use of the asset and the residual value from the ultimate disposal of the asset exceeds the carrying value. If the carrying value exceeds the estimated recoverable amounts, we reduce the carrying value to fair value and record an impairment loss in earnings, except with respect to impairment of assets of our regulated utility and energy subsidiaries where the impacts of regulation are considered in evaluating the carrying value.

Leases

(m)Leases

We are party to contracts where we lease property from others. When we lease assets from others, we record right-of-use assets and lease liabilities. Right-of-use assets represent our right to use an underlying asset for the lease term and lease liabilities represent our obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. In this regard, lease payments include fixed payments and variable payments that depend on an index or rate. The lease term is considered the non-cancellable lease period. Certain lease contracts contain renewal options or other terms that provide for variable payments based on performance or usage. Options are not included in determining right-of-use assets or lease liabilities unless it is reasonably certain that options will be exercised. Generally, incremental borrowing rates are used in measuring lease liabilities. Right-of-use assets are subject to review for impairment. As permitted under GAAP, for some leases we do not separate lease components from non-lease components by class of asset and we do not record assets or liabilities for leases with terms of one year or less.

Goodwill and other intangible assets

(n)Goodwill and other intangible assets

Goodwill represents the excess of the acquisition price of a business over the acquisition date values of identified net assets of that business. We evaluate goodwill for impairment at least annually. When evaluating goodwill for impairment, we estimate the fair value of the reporting unit. Several methods may be used to estimate a reporting unit’s fair value, including market quotations, asset and liability fair values and other valuation techniques, including, but not limited to, discounted projected future net earnings or net cash flows and multiples of earnings. When the carrying amount of a reporting unit, including goodwill, exceeds the estimated fair value, the excess up to the balance of goodwill is charged to earnings as an impairment loss.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices

(n)Goodwill and other intangible assets

Intangible assets with indefinite lives are also tested for impairment at least annually and when events or changes in circumstances indicate that, more-likely-than-not, the asset is impaired. Significant judgment is required in estimating fair values and performing goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible asset impairment tests. We amortize intangible assets with finite lives in a pattern that reflects the expected consumption of related economic benefits or on a straight-line basis over the estimated economic useful lives. Intangible assets with finite lives are reviewed for impairment when events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable.

Revenue recognition

(o)Revenue recognition

We earn insurance premiums on prospective property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts over the loss exposure or coverage period in proportion to the level of protection provided. We earn premiums, in most cases, ratably over the term of the contract with unearned premiums computed on a monthly or daily pro-rata basis. Premiums on retroactive property/casualty reinsurance contracts are normally received in full and are fully earned at the inception of the contracts, as all underlying loss events covered by the policies occurred prior to contract inception. Premiums for life reinsurance and periodic payment annuity contracts are earned when due. Premiums for periodic payment annuity contracts are fully received and earned at the inception of the contracts. Premiums earned are stated net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. Premiums earned on contracts with experience-rating provisions reflect estimated loss experience under such contracts.

Sales and service revenues are recognized when goods or services are transferred to a customer. A good or service is transferred when (or as) the customer obtains control of that good or service. Revenues are based on the consideration we expect to receive in connection with our promises to deliver goods and services to our customers.

We manufacture and/or distribute a wide variety of industrial, building and consumer products. Our sales contracts provide customers with products directly or through wholesale and retail channels in exchange for consideration specified under the contracts. Contracts generally represent customer orders for individual products at stated prices. Sales contracts may contain either single or multiple performance obligations. In instances where contracts contain multiple performance obligations, we allocate the revenue to each obligation based on the relative stand-alone selling prices of each product or service.

Sales revenues reflect reductions for returns, allowances, late delivery penalties, volume discounts and other incentives, some of which may be contingent on future events. In certain customer contracts, sales revenues include certain state and local excise taxes billed to customers on specified products when those taxes are levied directly upon us by the taxing authorities. Sales revenues exclude sales taxes and value-added taxes collected on behalf of taxing authorities. Sales revenues include consideration for shipping and other fulfillment activities performed prior to the customer obtaining control of the goods. We also elect to treat consideration for such services performed after control has passed to the customer as sales revenue.

Product sales revenues are generally recognized at a point in time when control of the product transfers to the customer, which coincides with customer pickup or product delivery or acceptance, depending on terms of the arrangement. We recognize sales revenues and related costs with respect to certain contracts over time, relating to certain bridge and structural steel, castings, forgings and aerostructures contracts. Control of the product units under these contracts transfers continuously to the customer as the product is manufactured. These products generally have no alternative use and the contract requires the customer to provide reasonable compensation if terminated for reasons other than breach of contract.

The primary performance obligation under our freight rail transportation service contracts is to move freight from a point of origin to a point of destination. The performance obligations are represented by bills of lading which create a series of distinct services that have a similar pattern of transfer to the customer. The revenues for each performance obligation are based on various factors including the product being shipped, the origin and destination pair and contract incentives, which are outlined in various private rate agreements, common carrier public tariffs, interline foreign road agreements and pricing quotes. The transaction price is generally a per car/unit amount to transport railcars from a specified origin to a specified destination. Freight revenues are recognized over time as the service is performed because the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits of the service. Revenues recognized represent the portion of the service completed as of the balance sheet date. Invoices for freight transportation services are generally issued to customers and paid within 30 days or less. Customer incentives, which are primarily provided for shipping a specified cumulative volume or shipping to/from specific locations, are recorded as a reduction to revenue on a pro-rata basis based on actual or projected future customer shipments.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices

(o)Revenue recognition

Utilities and energy revenues derive primarily from regulated electricity and natural gas sales and sales of fuel. Regulated electricity and natural gas revenues are primarily tariff-based sales arrangements approved by various regulatory commissions. These tariff-based revenues are mainly comprised of energy, transmission, distribution and natural gas and have performance obligations to deliver energy products and services to customers which are satisfied over time as energy is delivered or services are provided. Such revenues are equivalent to the amounts we have the right to invoice and correspond directly with the value to the customer of the performance to date and include billed and unbilled amounts. Payments from customers are generally due within 30 days of billing. Rates charged for regulated energy products and services are established by regulators or contractual arrangements that establish the transaction price, as well as the allocation of price among the separate performance obligations. When preliminary regulated rates are permitted to be billed prior to final approval by the applicable regulator, certain revenue collected may be subject to refund and a liability for estimated refunds is accrued. Nonregulated energy revenues include fuel sales, and to a lesser extent, renewable energy and other products. Fuels sold include diesel, gasoline and related products sold on a retail and wholesale basis. Fuel sales are recognized at the point-in-time when the product is delivered, and control is transferred to the customer, and include related excise taxes.

Other service revenues derive from contracts with customers in which performance obligations are satisfied over time, where customers receive and consume benefits as we perform the services or at a point in time when the services are completed. Other service revenues primarily derive from real estate brokerage, automotive repair, aircraft management, aviation training, franchising activities and news distribution.

Leasing revenue is generally recognized ratably over the term of the lease or based on usage, if applicable under the terms of the contract. A substantial portion of our lessor contracts are classified as operating leases.

Losses and loss adjustment expenses

(p)Losses and loss adjustment expenses

We record liabilities for unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses under property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts for loss events that have occurred on or before the balance sheet date. Such liabilities represent the estimated ultimate payment amounts without discounting for time value.

We base liability estimates on (1) loss reports from policyholders and cedents, (2) individual case estimates and (3) estimates of incurred but not reported losses. Losses and loss adjustment expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings include paid claims, claim settlement costs and changes in estimated claim liabilities. Losses and loss adjustment expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings are stated net of amounts recovered and estimates of amounts recoverable under ceded reinsurance contracts. Reinsurance contracts do not relieve the ceding company of its obligations to indemnify policyholders with respect to the underlying insurance and reinsurance contracts.

Retroactive reinsurance contracts

(q)Retroactive reinsurance contracts

We record liabilities for unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses under short duration retroactive reinsurance contracts consistent with property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts described in Note 1(p). With respect to retroactive reinsurance contracts, we also record deferred charge assets at the inception of the contracts, representing the excess, if any, of the estimated ultimate claim liabilities over the premiums earned. We subsequently amortize the deferred charge assets over the expected claim settlement periods using the interest method. Changes to the estimated timing or amount of future loss payments also produce changes in deferred charge assets. We apply changes in such estimates retrospectively and the resulting changes in deferred charge assets, together with periodic amortization, are included in insurance losses and loss adjustment expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings.

Insurance policy acquisition costs

(r)Insurance policy acquisition costs

We capitalize the direct incremental costs that relate to the successful sale of insurance contracts, subject to ultimate recoverability. Direct incremental acquisition costs include commissions, premium taxes and certain other costs associated with successful efforts. We expense all other underwriting costs as incurred. For short duration property and casualty insurance contracts, we amortize deferred policy acquisition costs over the contract term as the related premiums are earned. For long-duration life and health insurance contracts, we amortize deferred policy acquisition costs at a constant level based on the expected amount of insurance in-force and the expected term of the contract using the assumptions consistent with those used in determining related insurance liabilities. Deferred policy acquisition costs are included in other assets and were approximately $4.6 billion and $3.8 billion at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, of which $3.9 billion and $3.2 billion, respectively, related to property and casualty insurance contracts.

Life, annuity and health insurance benefits

(s)Life, annuity and health insurance benefits

Liabilities for life, annuity and health insurance benefits under long-duration insurance contracts represent the present value of expected future cash outflows from future benefit payments and non-acquisition variable expenses, less the present value of expected future “net premiums” which is the portion of gross premiums required to provide for all expected future benefits and variable expenses. Periodic payment and annuity reinsurance contracts are regarded as limited payment contracts under GAAP. Such liabilities include the present value of expected future payments based on the discount rates used to measure benefit liabilities and a deferred profit liability, representing the unamortized excess of gross premiums received over the net premiums established at the inception of the contract.

In estimating future cash flows, we consider the timing and amount of future claims, premiums and expenses, which require estimates of future investment yields, expected mortality, morbidity and lapse rates. Cash flow assumptions are reviewed at least annually, with the effects of assumption changes recorded in earnings. The discount rate assumptions used to measure benefit liabilities are revised each reporting period based on the prevailing upper-medium grade corporate bond yields (generally single-A rated credit ratings) that reflect the duration characteristics and currency attributes of the liabilities. In measuring benefit liabilities, we generally group contracts by contract issue year. The effects of changes in discount rates are recorded in other comprehensive income.

Regulated utilities and energy businesses

(t)Regulated utilities and energy businesses

Certain energy subsidiaries prepare their financial statements in accordance with authoritative guidance for regulated operations, reflecting the economic effects of regulation from the ability to recover certain costs from customers and the requirement to return revenues to customers in the future through the regulated rate-setting process. Accordingly, certain costs are deferred as regulatory assets and certain income is accrued as regulatory liabilities.

Regulatory assets and liabilities will be amortized into operating expenses and revenues over various future periods. Regulatory assets and liabilities are continually assessed for probable future inclusion in regulatory rates by considering factors such as applicable regulatory or legislative changes and recent rate orders received by other regulated entities. If future inclusion in regulatory rates ceases to be probable, the amount no longer probable of inclusion in regulatory rates is charged or credited to earnings (or other comprehensive income, if applicable) or returned to customers.

Foreign currency

(u)Foreign currency

The accounts of certain subsidiaries are measured using functional currencies other than the U.S. Dollar. Revenues and expenses in the financial statements of these subsidiaries are translated into U.S. Dollars at the average exchange rate for the period and assets and liabilities are translated at the exchange rate as of the end of the reporting period. The net effects of translating the financial statements of these subsidiaries are included in shareholders’ equity as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income. Gains and losses arising from transactions denominated in a currency other than the functional currency of the entity, including gains and losses from the remeasurement of assets and liabilities due to changes in currency exchange rates, are included in earnings.

Income taxes

(v)Income taxes

Berkshire files a consolidated federal income tax return in the U.S., which includes eligible subsidiaries. In addition, we file income tax returns in U.S. state and local and in foreign jurisdictions. Provisions for current income tax liabilities are calculated and accrued on income and expense amounts expected to be included in the income tax returns for the current year. Income taxes reported in earnings also include deferred income tax provisions.

Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are computed on differences between the financial statement bases and tax bases of assets and liabilities at the enacted tax rates. Changes in deferred income tax assets and liabilities associated with components of other comprehensive income are charged or credited directly to other comprehensive income. Otherwise, changes in deferred income tax assets and liabilities are included as a component of income tax expense. The effect on deferred income tax assets and liabilities attributable to changes in enacted tax rates are charged or credited to income tax expense in the period of enactment. Valuation allowances are established for certain deferred income tax assets when realization is not likely.

Liabilities are established for uncertain tax positions taken or positions expected to be taken in income tax returns when such positions, in our judgment, do not meet a more-likely-than-not threshold based on the technical merits of the positions. Estimated interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions are included as a component of income tax expense.

New accounting pronouncements adopted

(w)Accounting pronouncement adopted in 2023

We adopted Accounting Standards Update 2018-12, “Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long-Duration Contracts” (“ASU 2018-12”), as of January 1, 2023, which modified the accounting, reporting and disclosures related to our long-duration insurance contracts. See Note 1(s). ASU 2018-12 was applied retrospectively as of January 1, 2021 (the “transition date”) to contracts in-force as of the transition date. As of the transition date, the after-tax impact of changes in cash flow assumptions were recorded in retained earnings and the after-tax effect of changes in discount rate assumptions were recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income.

Certain items in the accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements in 2022 and 2021 were revised in connection with the retrospective adoption. The revisions in 2022 and 2021 were primarily attributable to the effects of discount rate changes, which were recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income, and are shown in the accompanying Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income and Statements of Changes in Shareholders’ Equity. We also increased previously reported net earnings attributable to Berkshire Hathaway shareholders by $142 million in 2021 and $60 million in 2022. We believe such effects are immaterial to our Consolidated Financial statements.

A summary of the effects of adopting ASU 2018-12 on selected financial statement line items as of the transition date follows (in millions).

	Balance at December 31, 2020			Increase (decrease)			Balance at January 1, 2021
Life, annuity and health insurance benefits	$	21,616		$	7,220		$	28,836
Other policyholder liabilities		8,670			1,697			10,367
Income taxes, principally deferred		74,098			(1,695	)		72,403
Accumulated other comprehensive income		(4,243	)		(5,751	)		(9,994	)
Retained earnings		444,626			(677	)		443,949
Berkshire Hathaway shareholders’ equity		443,164			(6,428	)		436,736

New accounting pronouncements to be adopted subsequent to December 31, 2023

(x) Accounting pronouncements to be adopted subsequent to December 31, 2023

In March 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standards Update 2023-02, “Accounting for Investments in Tax Credit Structures Using the Proportional Amortization Method” (“ASU 2023-02”). ASU 2023-02 permits reporting entities to elect to account for tax equity investments from which the income tax credits are received using the proportional amortization method at the program level if certain conditions are met. Currently, the proportional amortization method is limited to certain affordable housing tax credit investments. ASU 2023-02 is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2023. We believe that the adoption of ASU 2023-02 will not have a material effect on our Consolidated Financial Statements.

In November 2023, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update 2023-07, “Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures” (“ASU 2023-07”), which requires disclosures of significant expenses by segment and interim disclosure of items that were previously required on an annual basis. ASU 2023-07 is to be applied on a retrospective basis and is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2023 and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024. We are evaluating the impact of ASU 2023-07 on disclosures in our Consolidated Financial Statements.

In December 2023, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update 2023-09, “Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures” (“ASU 2023-09”), which provides for additional disclosures primarily related to the income tax rate reconciliations and income taxes paid. ASU 2023-09 requires entities to annually disclose the income tax rate reconciliation using both amounts and percentages, considering several categories of reconciling items, including state and local income taxes, foreign tax effects, tax credits and nontaxable or nondeductible items, among others. Disclosure of the reconciling items is subject to a quantitative threshold and disaggregation by nature and jurisdiction. ASU 2023-09 also requires entities to disclose net income taxes paid or received to federal, state and foreign jurisdictions, as well as by individual jurisdiction, subject to a five percent quantitative threshold. ASU 2023-09 may be adopted on a prospective or retrospective basis and is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024 with early adoption permitted. We are evaluating the impact of ASU 2023-09 on disclosures in our Consolidated Financial Statements.

Fixed Maturities [Member]

Investments in fixed maturity and equity securities

(d)Investments in fixed maturity securities

We classify investments in fixed maturity securities on the acquisition date and at each balance sheet date. Securities classified as held-to-maturity are carried at amortized cost, reflecting the ability and intent to hold the securities to maturity. Securities classified as trading are acquired with the intent to sell in the near term and are carried at fair value with changes in fair value reported in earnings. All other securities are classified as available-for-sale and are carried at fair value. Our investments in fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. We amortize the difference between the original cost and maturity value of a fixed maturity security to earnings using the interest method.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices

(d)Investments in fixed maturity securities

We record investment gains and losses on available-for-sale fixed maturity securities in earnings when the securities are sold. For securities in an unrealized loss position, we recognize a loss in earnings for the excess of amortized cost over fair value if we intend to sell before the price recovers. As of the balance sheet date, we evaluate whether the other unrealized losses are attributable to credit losses or other factors. We consider the severity of the decline in value, creditworthiness of the issuer and other relevant factors. We record an allowance for credit losses, limited to the excess of amortized cost over fair value, with a corresponding charge to earnings if the present value of estimated expected cash flows is less than the present value of contractual cash flows. The allowance may be subsequently increased or decreased based on the prevailing facts and circumstances. The portion of the unrealized loss that we believe is not related to a credit loss is recognized in other comprehensive income.

Equity Securities [Member]

Investments in fixed maturity and equity securities

(e)Investments in equity securities

We carry investments in equity securities at fair value and record the changes in fair values in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings as a component of investment gains and losses.