Significant accounting policies and practices (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2022

Nature of operations and basis of consolidation

(a)Nature of operations and basis of consolidation

Berkshire Hathaway Inc. (“Berkshire”) is a holding company owning subsidiaries engaged in numerous diverse business activities, including insurance and reinsurance, freight rail transportation, utilities and energy, manufacturing, service and retailing. In these notes the terms “us,” “we,” or “our” refer to Berkshire and its consolidated subsidiaries. Further information regarding our reportable business segments is contained in Note 25. Information concerning significant business acquisitions completed over the past three years appears in Note 2. We believe that reporting the Railroad, Utilities and Energy subsidiaries separately is appropriate given the relative significance of their long-lived assets, capital expenditures and debt, which is not guaranteed by Berkshire.

The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements include the accounts of Berkshire consolidated with the accounts of all subsidiaries and affiliates in which we hold a controlling financial interest as of the financial statement date. Normally a controlling financial interest reflects ownership of a majority of the voting interests. We consolidate variable interest entities (“VIE”) when we possess both the power to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly affect its economic performance, and we (a) are obligated to absorb the losses that could be significant to the VIE or (b) hold the right to receive benefits from the VIE that could be significant to the VIE. Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated. Certain immaterial balances in the Consolidated Financial Statements have been reclassified in prior years to conform to current year presentations.

Use of estimates in preparation of financial statements

(b)Use of estimates in preparation of financial statements

We prepare our Consolidated Financial Statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“GAAP”) which requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities at the balance sheet date and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the period. Our estimates of unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses are subject to considerable estimation error due to the inherent uncertainty in projecting ultimate claim costs. In addition, estimates and assumptions associated with the amortization of deferred charges on retroactive reinsurance contracts, determinations of fair values of certain financial instruments and evaluations of goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets for impairment require considerable judgment. Actual results may differ from the estimates used in preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements.

To varying degrees the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences continues to affect our operating businesses. Significant government and private sector actions have been taken since 2020 to control the spread and mitigate the economic effects of the virus and its variants. Such actions in 2022 included temporary business closures or restrictions of business activities in various parts of the world. In addition, significant disruptions of supply chains and higher costs emerged in 2021 and persisted in 2022. The development of geopolitical conflicts in 2022 contributed to disruptions of supply chains, resulting in cost increases for commodities, goods and services in many parts of the world. In the U.S. and elsewhere, governments are implementing actions intended to slow price inflation. The economic effects from these events over longer terms cannot be reasonably estimated at this time. Accordingly, significant estimates used in the preparation of our financial statements, including those associated with evaluations of certain long-lived assets, goodwill and other intangible assets for impairment, expected credit losses on amounts owed to us and the estimations of certain losses assumed under insurance and reinsurance contracts, may be subject to significant adjustments in future periods.

Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills

(c)Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills

Cash equivalents consist of demand deposit and money market accounts and investments with maturities of three months or less when purchased. Short-term investments in U.S. Treasury Bills have maturities exceeding three months and less than one year at the time of purchase.

Investments under the equity method

(f)Investments under the equity method

We utilize the equity method to account for investments when we possess the ability to exercise significant influence, but not control, over the operating and financial policies of the investee. The ability to exercise significant influence is presumed when the investor possesses more than 20% of the voting interests of the investee. This presumption may be overcome based on specific facts and circumstances that demonstrate that the ability to exercise significant influence is restricted. We apply the equity method to investments in common stock and other investments when such investments possess substantially identical subordinated interests to common stock, and do not apply the equity method to investments that are not in-substance common stock as defined by GAAP.

In applying the equity method, we record the investment at cost and subsequently increase or decrease the carrying amount of the investment by our proportionate share of the net earnings or losses and other comprehensive income of the investee. We record dividends or other equity distributions as reductions in the carrying value of the investment. If net losses reduce our carrying amount to zero, additional net losses may be recorded if other investments in the investee are at-risk, even if we have not committed to provide financial support to the investee. Such additional equity method losses, if any, are based upon the change in our claim on the investee’s book value.

Loans and finance receivables

(g)Loans and finance receivables

Loans and finance receivables are primarily manufactured home loans, and to a lesser extent, commercial loans and site-built home loans. We carry substantially all loans and finance receivables at amortized cost, net of allowances for expected credit losses, based on our ability and intent to hold such loans to maturity. Acquisition costs and loan origination and commitment costs paid and fees received, as well as acquisition premiums or discounts, are amortized as yield adjustments over the lives of the loans.

Measurements of expected credit losses include provisions for non-collection, whether the risk is probable or remote. Expected credit losses on manufactured home loans are based on the net present value of future principal payments less estimated expenses related to the charge-off and foreclosure of expected uncollectible loans and include provisions for loans that are not in foreclosure. Our principal credit quality indicator is whether the loans are performing. Expected credit loss estimates consider historical default rates, collateral recovery rates, historical runoff rates, interest rates, reductions of future cash flows for modified loans and the historical time elapsed from last payment until foreclosure, among other factors. In addition, our estimates consider current conditions and reasonable and supportable forecasts.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(g)Loans and finance receivables (Continued)

Loans are considered delinquent when payments are more than 30 days past due. We place loans over 90 days past due on nonaccrual status and accrued but uncollected interest is reversed. Subsequent collections on the loans are first applied to the principal and interest owed for the most delinquent amount. We resume interest income accrual once a loan is less than 90 days delinquent.

Loans are considered non-performing when the foreclosure process has started. Once a loan is in the process of foreclosure, interest income is not recognized until the foreclosure is cured or the loan is modified. Once a modification is complete, interest income is recognized based on the terms of the new loan. Foreclosed loans are charged off when the collateral is sold. Loans not in foreclosure are evaluated for charge-off based on individual circumstances concerning the future collectability of the loan and the condition of the collateral securing the loan.

Other receivables

(h)Other receivables

Other receivables include balances due from customers, insurance premiums receivable and reinsurance losses recoverable, as well as other receivables. Trade receivables, insurance premium receivables and other receivables are primarily short-term in nature with stated collection terms of less than one year from the date of origination. Reinsurance recoverables are comprised of amounts ceded under reinsurance contracts or pursuant to mandatory government-sponsored insurance programs. Reinsurance recoverables relate to unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses arising from property and casualty contracts and benefits under life and health contracts. Receivables are stated net of estimated allowances for uncollectible balances.

We measure expected credit losses primarily utilizing credit loss history, with adjustments to reflect current or expected future economic conditions when reasonable and supportable forecasts of losses deviate from historical experience. In evaluating expected credit losses of reinsurance recoverables on unpaid losses, we review the credit quality of the counterparty and consider right-of-offset provisions within reinsurance contracts and other forms of credit enhancement including collateral, guarantees and other available information. We charge-off receivables against the allowances after all reasonable collection efforts are exhausted.

Derivatives

(i)Derivatives

We carry assets and liabilities arising from derivative contracts at fair value in other assets and accounts payable, accruals and other liabilities in our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Balances are net of reductions permitted under master netting agreements with counterparties. We record the changes in fair value of derivative contracts that do not qualify as hedging instruments for financial reporting purposes in earnings or, if such contracts involve our regulated utilities subsidiaries, as regulatory assets or liabilities when inclusion in regulated rates is probable.

Fair value measurements

(j)Fair value measurements

As defined under GAAP, fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability between market participants in the principal market or in the most advantageous market when no principal market exists. Adjustments to transaction prices or quoted market prices may be required in illiquid or disorderly markets in estimating fair value. Alternative valuation techniques may be appropriate under the circumstances to determine the value that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction. Market participants are assumed to be independent, knowledgeable, and able and willing to transact an exchange and not acting under duress. Our nonperformance or credit risk is considered in determining the fair value of liabilities. Considerable judgment may be required in interpreting market data used to develop the estimates of fair value. Accordingly, estimates of fair value presented herein are not necessarily indicative of the amounts that could be realized in a current or future market exchange.

Inventories

(k)Inventories

Inventories consist of manufactured goods, goods or products acquired for resale and homes constructed for sale. Manufactured inventory costs include materials, direct and indirect labor and factory overhead. At December 31, 2022, we used the last-in-first-out (“LIFO”) method to value approximately 30% of consolidated inventories with the remainder primarily determined under first-in-first-out and average cost methods. Non-LIFO inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. The excess of current or replacement costs over costs determined under LIFO was approximately $2.5 billion as of December 31, 2022 and $1.9 billion as of December 31, 2021.

Property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(l)Property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease

We use property, plant and equipment in our operations. We also own equipment that we lease to others under lease contracts. We record additions to property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease at cost, which includes asset additions, improvements and betterments. With respect to constructed assets, all materials, direct labor and contract services as well as certain indirect costs are capitalized. Indirect costs include interest over the construction period. With respect to constructed assets of our utility and energy subsidiaries that are subject to authoritative guidance for regulated operations, capitalized costs also include an allowance for funds used during construction, which represents the cost of equity funds used to finance the construction of the regulated facilities. Normal repairs and maintenance and other costs that do not improve the property, extend its useful life or otherwise do not meet capitalization criteria are charged to expense as incurred.

Depreciation of assets of our regulated utilities and railroad is generally determined using group depreciation methods where rates are based on periodic depreciation studies approved by the applicable regulator. Under group depreciation, a composite rate is applied to the gross investment in a particular class of property, despite differences in the service life or salvage value of individual property units within the same class. When such assets are retired or sold, no gain or loss is recognized. Gains or losses on disposals of all other assets are recorded through earnings.

We depreciate property, plant and equipment used by our other businesses to the estimated salvage value primarily using the straight-line method over estimated service lives. Ranges of estimated service lives of depreciable assets used in our other businesses are as follows: buildings and improvements – 5 to 50 years, machinery and equipment – 3 to 25 years and furniture, fixtures and other – 3 to 15 years. Ranges of estimated useful lives of depreciable assets unique to our railroad business are as follows: track structure and other roadway – 10 to 100 years and locomotives, freight cars and other equipment – 6 to 43 years. Ranges of estimated useful lives of assets unique to our regulated utilities and energy businesses are as follows: utility generation, transmission and distribution systems – 5 to 80 years, interstate natural gas pipeline assets – 3 to 80 years and independent power plants and other assets – 2 to 50 years. We depreciate the equipment held for lease to estimated salvage value primarily using the straight-line method over estimated useful lives ranging from 3 to 35 years. We use declining balance depreciation methods for assets when the revenue-earning power of the asset is greater during the earlier years of its life.

We evaluate property, plant and equipment and equipment held for lease for impairment when events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value of such assets may not be recoverable or when the assets are held for sale. Upon the occurrence of a triggering event, we assess whether the estimated undiscounted cash flows expected from the use of the asset and the residual value from the ultimate disposal of the asset exceeds the carrying value. If the carrying value exceeds the estimated recoverable amounts, we reduce the carrying value to fair value and record an impairment loss in earnings, except with respect to impairment of assets of our regulated utility and energy subsidiaries where the impacts of regulation are considered in evaluating the carrying value.

Leases

(m)Leases

We are party to contracts where we lease property from others. When we lease assets from others, we record right-of-use assets and lease liabilities. Right-of-use assets represent our right to use an underlying asset for the lease term and lease liabilities represent our obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. In this regard, lease payments include fixed payments and variable payments that depend on an index or rate. The lease term is generally considered the non-cancellable lease period. Certain lease contracts contain renewal options or other terms that provide for variable payments based on performance or usage. Options are not included in determining right-of-use assets or lease liabilities unless it is reasonably certain that options will be exercised. Generally, incremental borrowing rates are used in measuring lease liabilities. Right-of-use assets are subject to review for impairment. As permitted under GAAP, for some leases we do not separate lease components from non-lease components by class of asset and we do not record assets or liabilities for leases with terms of one year or less.

Goodwill and other intangible assets

(n)Goodwill and other intangible assets

Goodwill represents the excess of the acquisition price of a business over the fair value of identified net assets of that business. We evaluate goodwill for impairment at least annually. When evaluating goodwill for impairment, we estimate the fair value of the reporting unit. Several methods may be used to estimate a reporting unit’s fair value, including market quotations, asset and liability fair values and other valuation techniques, including, but not limited to, discounted projected future net earnings or net cash flows and multiples of earnings. When the carrying amount of a reporting unit, including goodwill, exceeds the estimated fair value, the excess up to the balance of goodwill is charged to earnings as an impairment loss.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(n)Goodwill and other intangible assets (Continued)

Intangible assets with indefinite lives are also tested for impairment at least annually and when events or changes in circumstances indicate that, more-likely-than-not, the asset is impaired. Significant judgment is required in estimating fair values and performing goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible asset impairment tests. We amortize intangible assets with finite lives in a pattern that reflects the expected consumption of related economic benefits or on a straight-line basis over the estimated economic useful lives. Intangible assets with finite lives are reviewed for impairment when events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable.

Revenue recognition

(o)Revenue recognition

We earn insurance premiums on prospective property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts over the loss exposure or coverage period in proportion to the level of protection provided. Premiums are generally earned in proportion to the coverage provided, which in most cases is ratably over the term of the contract with unearned premiums computed on a monthly or daily pro-rata basis. Premiums on retroactive property/casualty reinsurance contracts are generally received in full and are earned at the inception of the contracts, as all underlying loss events covered by the policies occurred prior to contract inception. Premiums for life reinsurance and periodic payment annuity contracts are earned when due. Premiums for periodic payment annuity contracts are received in full at the inception of the contracts. Premiums earned are stated net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. Premiums earned on contracts with experience-rating provisions reflect estimated loss experience under such contracts.

Sales and service revenues are recognized when goods or services are transferred to a customer. A good or service is transferred when (or as) the customer obtains control of that good or service. Revenues are based on the consideration we expect to receive in connection with our promises to deliver goods and services to our customers.

We manufacture and/or distribute a wide variety of industrial, building and consumer products. Our sales contracts provide customers with these products directly or through wholesale and retail channels in exchange for consideration specified under the contracts. Contracts generally represent customer orders for individual products at stated prices. Sales contracts may contain either single or multiple performance obligations. In instances where contracts contain multiple performance obligations, we allocate the revenue to each obligation based on the relative stand-alone selling prices of each product or service.

Sales revenue reflects reductions for returns, allowances, late delivery penalties, volume discounts and other incentives, some of which may be contingent on future events. In certain customer contracts, sales revenue includes certain state and local excise taxes billed to customers on specified products when those taxes are levied directly upon us by the taxing authorities. Sales revenue excludes sales taxes and value-added taxes collected on behalf of taxing authorities. Sales revenue includes consideration for shipping and other fulfillment activities performed prior to the customer obtaining control of the goods. We also elect to treat consideration for such services performed after control has passed to the customer as sales revenue.

Our product sales revenues are generally recognized at a point in time when control of the product transfers to the customer, which coincides with customer pickup or product delivery or acceptance, depending on terms of the arrangement. We recognize sales revenues and related costs with respect to certain contracts over time, primarily from certain castings, forgings and aerostructures contracts. Control of the product units under these contracts transfers continuously to the customer as the product is manufactured. These products generally have no alternative use and the contract requires the customer to provide reasonable compensation if terminated for reasons other than breach of contract.

The primary performance obligation under our freight rail transportation service contracts is to move freight from a point of origin to a point of destination. The performance obligations are represented by bills of lading which create a series of distinct services that have a similar pattern of transfer to the customer. The revenues for each performance obligation are based on various factors including the product being shipped, the origin and destination pair and contract incentives, which are outlined in various private rate agreements, common carrier public tariffs, interline foreign road agreements and pricing quotes. The transaction price is generally a per car/unit amount to transport railcars from a specified origin to a specified destination. Freight revenues are recognized over time as the service is performed because the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits of the service. Revenues recognized represent the portion of the service completed as of the balance sheet date. Invoices for freight transportation services are generally issued to customers and paid within 30 days or less. Customer incentives, which are primarily provided for shipping a specified cumulative volume or shipping to/from specific locations, are recorded as a reduction to revenue on a pro-rata basis based on actual or projected future customer shipments.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(o)Revenue recognition (Continued)

Our energy revenue derives primarily from tariff-based sales arrangements approved by various regulatory commissions. These tariff-based revenues are mainly comprised of energy, transmission, distribution and natural gas and have performance obligations to deliver energy products and services to customers which are satisfied over time as energy is delivered or services are provided. Our nonregulated energy revenue primarily relates to our renewable energy business. Energy revenues are equivalent to the amounts we have the right to invoice and correspond directly with the value to the customer of the performance to date and include billed and unbilled amounts. Payments from customers are generally due within 30 days of billing. Rates charged for energy products and services are established by regulators or contractual arrangements that establish the transaction price, as well as the allocation of price among the separate performance obligations. When preliminary regulated rates are permitted to be billed prior to final approval by the applicable regulator, certain revenue collected may be subject to refund and a liability for estimated refunds is accrued. Other service revenues derive from contracts with customers in which performance obligations are satisfied over time, where customers receive and consume benefits as we perform the services or at a point in time when the services are provided. Other service revenues primarily derive from real estate brokerage, automotive repair, aircraft management, aviation training, franchising and news distribution.

Leasing revenue is generally recognized ratably over the term of the lease or based on usage, if applicable under the terms of the contract. A substantial portion of our lessor contracts are classified as operating leases.

Losses and loss adjustment expenses

(p)Losses and loss adjustment expenses

We record liabilities for unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses under property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts for loss events that have occurred on or before the balance sheet date. Such liabilities represent the estimated ultimate payment amounts without discounting for time value.

We base liability estimates on (1) loss reports from policyholders and cedents, (2) individual case estimates and (3) estimates of incurred but not reported losses. Losses and loss adjustment expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings include paid claims, claim settlement costs and changes in estimated claim liabilities. Losses and loss adjustment expenses charged to earnings are net of amounts recovered and estimates of amounts recoverable under ceded reinsurance contracts. Reinsurance contracts do not relieve the ceding company of its obligations to indemnify policyholders with respect to the underlying insurance and reinsurance contracts.

Retroactive reinsurance contracts

(q)Retroactive reinsurance contracts

We record liabilities for unpaid losses and loss adjustment expenses under short duration retroactive reinsurance contracts consistent with property/casualty insurance and reinsurance contracts described in Note 1(p). With respect to retroactive reinsurance contracts, we also record deferred charge assets at the inception of the contracts, representing the excess, if any, of the estimated ultimate claim liabilities over the premiums earned. We subsequently amortize the deferred charge assets over the expected claim settlement periods using the interest method. Changes to the estimated timing or amount of future loss payments also produce changes in deferred charge balances. We apply changes in such estimates retrospectively and the resulting changes in deferred charge balances, together with periodic amortization, are included in insurance losses and loss adjustment expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings.

Insurance policy acquisition costs

(r)Insurance policy acquisition costs

We capitalize the direct incremental costs that relate to the successful sale of insurance contracts, subject to ultimate recoverability. Direct incremental acquisition costs include commissions, premium taxes and certain other costs associated with successful efforts. We expense all other underwriting costs as incurred. For short duration contracts, we subsequently amortize deferred policy acquisition costs to underwriting expenses as the related premiums are earned. Acquisition costs related to long duration life insurance contracts are amortized over the expected premium-paying period in proportion to the anticipated premiums over the life of the policy. Such anticipated premiums are estimated using the same assumptions used for computing liabilities for future policy benefits. The recoverability of deferred policy acquisition costs generally considers anticipated investment income. The unamortized balances are included in other assets and were approximately $3.8 billion and $3.4 billion at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively, which included $3.2 billion and $2.9 billion, respectively, related to property and casualty insurance contracts.

Life, annuity and health insurance benefits

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(s)Life, annuity and health insurance benefits

Liabilities for future life, annuity and health insurance benefits represent the present value of expected future benefits and non-acquisition variable expenses, less the present value of expected future net premiums (the portion of gross premium required to provide for all expected future benefits and variable expenses). In estimating future cash flows, we consider the timing and amounts of future claims, premiums and expenses, which require estimates concerning future investment yields, expected mortality, morbidity and lapse or withdrawal rates. These assumptions, as applicable, also include a margin for adverse deviation and may vary with the characteristics of the contract’s date of issuance, policy duration and country of risk. The interest rate assumptions used for discounting may vary by contract or underlying currency denomination of our reinsurance contracts. Generally, assumptions regarding cash flow and discount rate are fixed at the inception of the contract and changed only under certain adverse circumstances. The effects of changes in estimated cash flows and discount rate assumptions on benefit liabilities are recorded in earnings in the period of the change. Periodic payment and annuity reinsurance contracts are regarded as limited payment contracts under GAAP. We discount annuity liabilities based on the implicit rate as of the inception of the contracts such that the present value of the liabilities equals the premiums received less brokerage expense at the inception date. Discount rates for most contracts range between 3% to 7%.

Regulated utilities and energy businesses

(t)Regulated utilities and energy businesses

Certain energy subsidiaries prepare their financial statements in accordance with authoritative guidance for regulated operations, reflecting the economic effects of regulation from the ability to recover certain costs from customers and the requirement to return revenues to customers in the future through the regulated rate-setting process. Accordingly, certain costs are deferred as regulatory assets and certain income is accrued as regulatory liabilities. Regulatory assets and liabilities will be amortized into operating expenses and revenues over various future periods.

Regulatory assets and liabilities are continually assessed for probable future inclusion in regulatory rates by considering factors such as applicable regulatory or legislative changes and recent rate orders received by other regulated entities. If future inclusion in regulatory rates ceases to be probable, the amount no longer probable of inclusion in regulatory rates is charged or credited to earnings (or other comprehensive income, if applicable) or returned to customers.

Foreign currency

(u)Foreign currency

The accounts of our non-U.S.-based subsidiaries are measured, in most instances, using functional currencies other than the U.S. Dollar. Revenues and expenses in the financial statements of these subsidiaries are translated into U.S. Dollars at the average exchange rate for the period and assets and liabilities are translated at the exchange rate as of the end of the reporting period. The net effects of translating the financial statements of these subsidiaries are included in shareholders’ equity as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income. Gains and losses arising from transactions denominated in a currency other than the functional currency of the subsidiary, including gains and losses from the remeasurement of assets and liabilities due to changes in currency exchange rates, are included in earnings.

Income taxes

(v)Income taxes

Berkshire files a consolidated federal income tax return in the U.S., which includes eligible subsidiaries. In addition, we file income tax returns in state, local and foreign jurisdictions. Provisions for current income tax liabilities are calculated and accrued on income and expense amounts expected to be included in the income tax returns for the current year. Income taxes reported in earnings also include deferred income tax provisions.

Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are computed on differences between the financial statement bases and tax bases of assets and liabilities at the enacted tax rates. Changes in deferred income tax assets and liabilities associated with components of other comprehensive income are charged or credited directly to other comprehensive income. Otherwise, changes in deferred income tax assets and liabilities are included as a component of income tax expense. The effect on deferred income tax assets and liabilities attributable to changes in enacted tax rates are charged or credited to income tax expense in the period of enactment. Valuation allowances are established for certain deferred income tax assets when realization is not likely.

Liabilities are established for uncertain tax positions taken or positions expected to be taken in income tax returns when such positions, in our judgment, do not meet a more-likely-than-not threshold based on the technical merits of the positions. Estimated interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions are included as a component of income tax expense.

New accounting pronouncements adopted

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(w)New accounting pronouncements adopted in 2020

We adopted Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) 326 “Financial Instruments-Credit Losses” on January 1, 2020, which provides for the measurement of expected credit losses on financial assets that are carried at amortized cost based on the net amounts expected to be collected. Measurements of expected credit losses therefore include provisions for non-collection, whether the risk is probable or remote. Upon adoption of ASC 326, we recorded a charge to retained earnings of $388 million representing the cumulative after-tax increase in our allowances for credit losses.

New accounting pronouncements to be adopted subsequent to December 31, 2022

(x)New accounting pronouncements to be adopted subsequent to December 31, 2022

In August 2018, the Financial Accounting Standards Board issued Accounting Standards Update 2018-12 “Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long-Duration Contracts” (“ASU 2018-12”). ASU 2018-12 requires reassessment of cash flow assumptions at least annually and revision of discount rate assumptions each reporting period in valuing policyholder liabilities of long-duration insurance and reinsurance contracts. Discount rate assumptions are established based upon upper-medium grade corporate bond yields that reflect the duration characteristics of the liabilities. ASU 2018-12 also provides for new disclosures. Under ASU 2018-12, the effects from changes in cash flow assumptions are reflected in earnings and the effects from changes in discount rate assumptions are reflected in other comprehensive income. Prior to ASU 2018-12, the cash flow and discount rate assumptions were set at the contract inception date and not subsequently changed, except under certain adverse circumstances. ASU 2018-12 is to be applied retrospectively to the earliest period presented in the financial statements.

We adopted ASU 2018-12 as of January 1, 2023 using the modified retrospective method. Revised cash flow and discount rate assumptions were applied to contracts in-force between January 1, 2021 (the transition date) and December 31, 2022 with liabilities remeasured, with the cumulative effect from discount rate changes (based on prevailing interest rates) recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income and the cumulative effect from cash flow assumption changes in retained earnings.

The adoption of ASU 2018-12 produced a cumulative after-tax reduction in our originally reported consolidated shareholders’ equity at the end of 2020 of approximately $6.4 billion (or 1.4%), consisting of reductions to accumulated other comprehensive income of $5.7 billion and retained earnings of $700 million. The cumulative decline in shareholders’ equity decreased to approximately $4.6 billion (or 0.9% of the shareholders’ equity originally reported) at December 31, 2021. The cumulative effect of adopting ASU 2018-12 will increase our shareholders’ equity at December 31, 2022 by approximately $1.0 billion. These effects reflect the after-tax increases or decreases to our life, health and annuity benefits liabilities and reinsurance recoverables, primarily derived from changes in discount rate assumptions. The effects of adopting ASU 2018-12 will be reflected primarily in other comprehensive income and the impact on our consolidated net earnings for each of the years ending December 31, 2022 and 2021 is not material.

Fixed Maturities [Member]

Investments in fixed maturity and equity securities

(d)Investments in fixed maturity securities

We classify investments in fixed maturity securities on the acquisition date and at each balance sheet date. Securities classified as held-to-maturity are carried at amortized cost, reflecting the ability and intent to hold the securities to maturity. Securities classified as trading are acquired with the intent to sell in the near term and are carried at fair value with changes in fair value reported in earnings. All other securities are classified as available-for-sale and are carried at fair value. Substantially all of our investments in fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. We amortize the difference between the original cost and maturity value of a fixed maturity security to earnings using the interest method.

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Continued)

(1)Significant accounting policies and practices (Continued)

(d)Investments in fixed maturity securities (Continued)

We record investment gains and losses on available-for-sale fixed maturity securities when the securities are sold, determined on a specific identification basis. For securities in an unrealized loss position, we recognize a loss in earnings for the excess of amortized cost over fair value if we intend to sell before the price recovers. As of the balance sheet date, we evaluate whether the other unrealized losses are attributable to credit losses or other factors. We consider the severity of the decline in value, creditworthiness of the issuer and other relevant factors. We record an allowance for credit losses, limited to the excess of amortized cost over fair value, with a corresponding charge to earnings if the present value of estimated cash flows is less than the present value of contractual cash flows. The allowance may be subsequently increased or decreased based on the prevailing facts and circumstances. The portion of the unrealized loss that we believe is not related to a credit loss is recognized in other comprehensive income.

Equity Securities [Member]

Investments in fixed maturity and equity securities

(e)Investments in equity securities

We carry substantially all investments in equity securities at fair value and record the subsequent changes in fair values in the Consolidated Statements of Earnings as a component of investment gains or losses.