The components of the provision for income taxes for the years ended May 31 were as follows (in millions):

	2019			2018			2017
Current provision (benefit)
Domestic:
Federal	$	(107	)	$	(540	)	$	269
State and local		64			43			88
Foreign		243			461			285
		200			(36	)		642
Deferred provision (benefit)
Domestic:
Federal		(61	)		271			989
State and local		(7	)		125			59
Foreign		(17	)		(579	)		(108	)
		(85	)		(183	)		940
	$	115		$	(219	)	$	1,582

Pre-tax earnings of foreign operations for 2019, 2018 and 2017 were $929 million, $958 million and $919 million, respectively. These amounts represent only a portion of total results associated with international shipments and do not represent our international results of operations.

A reconciliation of total income tax expense and the amount computed by applying the statutory federal income tax rate (21% in 2019, 29.2% in 2018 and 35% in 2017) to income before taxes for the years ended May 31 is as follows (in millions):

	2019			2018			2017
Taxes computed at federal statutory rate	$	138		$	1,271		$	1,603
Increases (decreases) in income tax from:
Non-deductible expenses		79			81			76
Valuation allowance		(79	)		31			44
TCJA⁽¹⁾		(71	)		(1,354	)		—
Foreign tax rate enactments		50			6			—
State and local income taxes, net of federal benefit		44			119			99
Benefits from share-based payments		(18	)		(60	)		(55	)
Uncertain tax positions		8			86			—
Foreign tax credits from distributions		(8	)		(225	)		—
Foreign operations		(1	)		25			(5	)
Corporate structuring transactions⁽²⁾		—			(255	)		(68	)
Goodwill impairment charge		—			109			—
Other, net		(27	)		(53	)		(112	)
Provision for income taxes (benefit)	$	115		$	(219	)	$	1,582
Effective Tax Rate		17.6	%		(5.0	)%		34.6	%

⁽¹⁾	Primary components in 2018 were a $1.15 billion benefit from the remeasurement of our net U.S. deferred tax liability and a $204 million one-time benefit from a contribution to our tax-qualified U.S. domestic pension plans (“U.S. Pension Plans”) in 2018.

⁽²⁾	The 2018 and 2017 net benefits consist of foreign deferred tax benefits of $434 million and $94 million, respectively, which were partially offset by U.S. deferred tax expenses of $179 million and $26 million, respectively.

The 2019 tax rate includes a benefit of $90 million from the reduction of a valuation allowance on tax loss carryforwards due to certain business operational changes from the integration of FedEx Express and TNT Express in a local jurisdiction, which impacted our determination of the realizability of the deferred tax asset in that jurisdiction and an expense of $50 million from the impact on our deferred taxes attributable to a lower tax rate in the Netherlands. The 2019 tax rate was also favorably impacted by the TCJA, which resulted in benefits of approximately $75 million from accelerated deductions claimed on our 2018 U.S. income tax return filed in 2019 and approximately $40 million from the lower statutory tax rate on fiscal 2019 earnings.

The 2018 tax rate was favorably impacted by the TCJA, which resulted in a provisional benefit of $1.15 billion from the remeasurement of our net U.S. deferred tax liability. In addition, we recognized a benefit of approximately $265 million related to the lower statutory income tax rate and a one-time benefit of $204 million from a $1.5 billion contribution to our U.S. Pension Plans in 2018. Our 2018 tax rate also included a net benefit of $255 million from corporate structuring transactions as part of the ongoing integration of FedEx Express and TNT Express and a benefit of $225 million from foreign tax credits generated by distributions to the U.S. from our foreign operations. The 2018 tax rate was negatively impacted by an increase in uncertain tax positions for income tax audits. Our 2017 tax rate was favorably impacted by $62 million as a result of new U.S. foreign currency tax regulations.

The TCJA, enacted on December 22, 2017, significantly changed the U.S. corporate income tax system in multiple ways such as (1) reducing our U.S. statutory federal income tax rate from 35% to 21% (due to our May 31 fiscal year-end, the lower rate was phased in, resulting in a U.S. statutory federal rate of 29.2% for 2018 and a statutory federal rate of 21% for 2019 and subsequent years); (2) requiring us to calculate a one-time U.S. tax on earnings which have not previously been repatriated to the U.S. (transition tax); and (3) introducing new provisions that took effect in 2019, including but not limited to, a tax on global intangible low-taxed income (GILTI), a tax deduction for foreign-derived intangible income, additional limitations on tax deductions for executive compensation and a minimum base erosion and anti-abuse tax based on certain payments from a U.S. company to foreign related parties. We included the impact of the above provisions in the computation of our effective tax rates, as applicable.

As provided for in the TCJA, our historical earnings were subject to the one-time transition tax and can be repatriated to the U.S. with a de minimis tax cost. We continue to assert that both our historical and current earnings in our foreign subsidiaries are permanently reinvested and therefore no deferred taxes or withholding taxes have been provided, including deferred taxes on any additional outside basis difference (e.g., stock basis differences attributable to acquisition or other permanent differences).

During 2019, the U.S. Treasury Department issued final regulations covering the one-time transition tax on unrepatriated foreign earnings, which was enacted as part of the TCJA. Certain guidance included in these final regulations is inconsistent with our interpretation that led to the recognition of a $225 million benefit in 2018 and an additional $8 million benefit in 2019. Notwithstanding this inconsistency, we remain confident in our interpretation of the TCJA and intend to defend this position through litigation, if necessary. However, if we are ultimately unsuccessful in defending our position, we may be required to reverse the $233 million benefit previously recorded.

In December 2017, the SEC staff issued Staff Accounting Bulletin (“SAB”) 118 to provide guidance to registrants in accounting for income taxes under the TCJA. In accordance with SAB 118, we made reasonable estimates and recorded provisional amounts for the TCJA during 2018. Under the transitional provisions of SAB 118, we had a one-year measurement period to complete the accounting for the initial tax effects of the TCJA. Our accounting is complete for the tax effects of the TCJA, including the following elements initially recorded on a provisional basis:

The significant components of deferred tax assets and liabilities as of May 31 were as follows (in millions):

	2019					2018
	Deferred Tax Assets			Deferred Tax Liabilities		Deferred Tax Assets			Deferred Tax Liabilities
Property, equipment, leases and intangibles	$	592		$	4,633	$	752		$	3,663
Employee benefits		1,256			—		595			31
Self-insurance accruals		585			—		494			—
Other		510			340		416			602
Net operating loss/credit carryforwards		1,139			—		1,146			—
Valuation allowances		(590	)		—		(711	)		—
	$	3,492		$	4,973	$	2,692		$	4,296

The net deferred tax liabilities as of May 31 have been classified in the balance sheets as follows (in millions):

We have approximately $3.4 billion of net operating loss carryovers in various foreign jurisdictions and $780 million of state operating loss carryovers. The valuation allowances primarily represent amounts reserved for operating loss carryforwards, which expire over varying periods starting in 2020. Therefore, we establish valuation allowances if it is more likely than not that deferred income tax assets will not be realized. We believe that we will generate sufficient future taxable income to realize the tax benefits related to the remaining net deferred tax assets in our consolidated balance sheets. See Note 1 above for more information on our policy for assessing the recoverability of deferred tax assets and valuation allowances.

We are subject to taxation in the U.S. and various U.S. state, local and foreign jurisdictions. The Internal Revenue Service is currently auditing our 2016 and 2017 tax returns. We will also be commencing an appeals proceeding in September 2019 with respect to our 2014 and 2015 U.S. federal income tax returns. It is reasonably possible that certain income tax return proceedings will be completed during the next 12 months and could result in a change in our balance of unrecognized tax benefits. The expected impact of any changes would not be material to our consolidated financial statements.

A reconciliation of the beginning and ending amount of unrecognized tax benefits is as follows (in millions):

	2019			2018			2017
Balance at beginning of year	$	161		$	67		$	49
Increases for tax positions taken in the current year		—			3			—
Increases for tax positions taken in prior years		31			103			8
Increase for business acquisition		—			—			17
Decreases for tax positions taken in prior years		(4	)		(10	)		(1	)
Settlements		(21	)		(2	)		(4	)
Decreases from lapse of statute of limitations		—			—			(2	)
Changes due to currency translation		(3	)		—			—
Balance at end of year	$	164		$	161		$	67

Our liabilities recorded for uncertain tax positions include $141 million at May 31, 2019 and $142 million at May 31, 2018 associated with positions that, if favorably resolved, would provide a benefit to our income tax expense. We classify interest related to income tax liabilities as interest expense and, if applicable, penalties are recognized as a component of income tax expense. The balance of accrued interest and penalties was $38 million on May 31, 2019 and $35 million on May 31, 2018. Total interest and penalties included in our consolidated statements of income are immaterial.

It is difficult to predict the ultimate outcome or the timing of resolution for tax positions. Changes may result from the conclusion of ongoing audits, appeals or litigation in state, local, federal and foreign tax jurisdictions, or from the resolution of various proceedings between U.S. and foreign tax authorities. Our liability for uncertain tax positions includes no matters that are individually or collectively material to us. It is reasonably possible that the amount of the benefit with respect to certain of our unrecognized tax positions will increase or decrease within the next 12 months, but an estimate of the range of the reasonably possible changes cannot be made. However, we do not expect that the resolution of any of our uncertain tax positions will have a material effect on us.