Restructuring charges primarily include severance costs associated with headcount reductions, as well as branch closure charges. We incur severance costs and branch closure charges in the ordinary course of our business. We only include such costs that are part of a restructuring program as restructuring charges. Since the first such program was initiated in 2008, we have completed five restructuring programs and have incurred total restructuring charges of $352.

Our closed restructuring programs were initiated either in recognition of a challenging economic environment or following the completion of certain significant acquisitions. As of December 31, 2021, the total liability associated with the closed restructuring programs was $9. As of December 31, 2021, we have incurred total restructuring charges under the closed restructuring programs of $335, comprised of $194 of branch closure charges and $141 of severance and other costs.

In the fourth quarter of 2019, we initiated a restructuring program associated with the consolidation of certain common functions, the relocation of our shared-service facilities and certain other cost reduction measures. We did not recognize material costs associated with this program in 2019, which is excluded from the table below. We closed this program in the first quarter of 2022 and do not expect to expect to recognize significant future costs under the program.

The table below provides certain information concerning our restructuring charges under the 2020-2021 Cost Savings restructuring program:


Description	Beginning Reserve Balance		Charged to Costs and Expenses (1)		Payments and Other		Ending Reserve Balance




Year Ended December 31, 2020:
Branch closure charges	$	—	$	7	$	(4)	$	3
Severance and other	—		8		(6)		2
Total	$	—	$	15	$	(10)	$	5
Year Ended December 31, 2021:
Branch closure charges	$	3	$	—	$	(2)	$	1
Severance and other	2		1		(3)		—
Total	$	5	$	1	$	(5)	$	1

(1) Reflected in our consolidated statements of income as “Restructuring charge” (such charge also includes activity under our other restructuring programs). The restructuring charges are not allocated to our segments. As of December 31, 2021, we have incurred total restructuring charges under the 2020-2021 Cost Savings restructuring program of $17, comprised of $8 of branch closure charges and $9 of severance and other costs.

In addition to the restructuring charges discussed above, during the years ended December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019, we recorded asset impairment charges of $14, $36 and $5, respectively, primarily in our general rentals segment. The 2020 asset impairment charges, which were not related to COVID-19, are primarily reflected in depreciation of rental equipment in our consolidated statements of income and principally relate to the discontinuation of certain equipment programs.