Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2015

Basis of Presentation and Consolidation. The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements are prepared in accordance with United States (“U.S.”) generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”) and are presented in our reporting currency, the U.S. dollar. All material intercompany transactions with consolidated entities have been eliminated.

We consolidate all entities that are wholly owned and those in which we own less than 100% of the equity but control, as well as any variable interest entities in which we are the primary beneficiary. We evaluate our ability to control an entity and whether the entity is a variable interest entity and we are the primary beneficiary through consideration of substantive terms of the arrangement to identify which enterprise has the power to direct the activities of the entity that most significantly impacts the entity’s economic performance and the obligation to absorb losses of the entity or the right to receive benefits from the entity.

For entities that are not defined as variable interest entities, we first consider whether we are the general partner or the limited partner (or the equivalent in such investments that are not structured as partnerships). We consolidate entities in which we are the general partner and the limited partners in such entities do not have rights that would preclude control. For entities in which we are the general partner but do not control the entity as the other partners hold substantive participating or kick-out rights, we apply the equity method of accounting since as the general partner we have the ability to influence the venture. For ventures for which we are a limited partner or our investment is in an entity that is not structured similar to a partnership, we consider factors such as ownership interest, voting control, authority to make decisions, and contractual and substantive participating rights of the partners. In instances where the factors indicate that we control the venture, we consolidate the entity.

Reclassifications

Reclassifications. Certain amounts included in the Consolidated Financial Statements for 2014 and 2013 have been reclassified to conform to the 2015 financial statement presentation.

Use of Estimates

Use of Estimates. GAAP requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements, and revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Although we believe the assumptions and estimates we made are reasonable and appropriate, as discussed in the applicable sections throughout the Consolidated Financial Statements, different assumptions and estimates could materially impact our reported results.

Foreign Operations

Foreign Operations. The U.S. dollar is the functional currency for our consolidated subsidiaries and unconsolidated entities operating in the United States and Mexico and certain of our consolidated subsidiaries that operate as holding companies for foreign investments. The functional currency for our consolidated subsidiaries and unconsolidated entities operating in countries other than the United States and Mexico is the principal currency in which the entity’s assets, liabilities, income and expenses are denominated, which may be different from the local currency of the country of incorporation or where the entity conducts its operations.

The functional currencies of our consolidated subsidiaries and unconsolidated entities generally include the Brazilian real, British pound sterling, Canadian dollar, Chinese renminbi, euro, Japanese yen and Singapore dollar. We take part in business transactions denominated in these and other local currencies where we operate.

For our consolidated subsidiaries whose functional currency is not the U.S. dollar, we translate their financial statements into the U.S. dollar at the time we consolidate those subsidiaries’ financial statements. Generally, assets and liabilities are translated at the exchange rate in effect at the balance sheet date. The resulting translation adjustments are included in Accumulated Other Comprehensive Loss in the Consolidated Balance Sheets (“AOCI”). Certain balance sheet items, primarily equity and capital-related accounts, are reflected at the historical exchange rate. Income statement accounts are translated using the average exchange rate for the period and income statement accounts that represent significant nonrecurring transactions are translated at the rate in effect at the date of the transaction. We translate our share of the net earnings or losses of our unconsolidated entities whose functional currency is not the U.S. dollar at the average exchange rate for the period.

We and certain of our consolidated subsidiaries have intercompany and third-party debt that is not denominated in the entity’s functional currency. When the debt is remeasured against the functional currency of the entity, a gain or loss can result. The resulting adjustment is reflected in results of operations, unless it is intercompany debt that is deemed to be long-term in nature and then the adjustment is reflected as a cumulative translation adjustment in AOCI.

Business Combinations

Business Combinations. When we acquire a business or individual operating properties, we allocate the purchase price to the various components of the acquisition based on the fair value of the acquired assets and assumed liabilities, including an allocation to the individual buildings acquired. We generally acquire operating properties that meet the definition of a business and we expense transaction costs as incurred. The initial allocation of the purchase price is based on management’s preliminary assessment, which may differ when final information becomes available. Subsequent adjustments made to the initial purchase price allocation are made within the allocation period, not to exceed one year.

When we obtain control of an unconsolidated entity, we account for the acquisition in accordance with the guidance for a business combination achieved in stages. We remeasure our previously held interest in the unconsolidated entity at its acquisition-date fair value and recognize the resulting gain or loss, if any, in earnings at the acquisition date.

We allocate the purchase price using primarily Level 2 and Level 3 inputs (further defined in Fair Value Measurements below) as follows:

Investments in Real Estate Properties. We value operating properties as if vacant. We estimate fair value generally by applying an income approach methodology using a discounted cash flow analysis. Key assumptions in the discounted cash flow analysis include market rents, growth rates and discount and capitalization rates. We determine discount and capitalization rates by market based on recent transactions and other market data. The fair value of land is generally based on relevant market data, such as a comparison of the subject site to similar parcels that have recently been sold or are currently being offered on the market for sale.

Intangible Assets. We determine the portion of the purchase price related to intangible assets as follows:

·	In-Place Leases. We calculate the fair value of in place leases in each of the applicable markets. The value is recorded in Other Assets and amortized over the remaining life of the respective leases to amortization expense.

Above and Below Market Leases. We recognize an asset or liability for acquired leases with favorable or unfavorable rents based on our estimate of current market rents of the applicable markets. The value is recorded in either Other Assets or Other Liabilities, as appropriate, and is amortized over the term of the respective leases, including any bargain renewal options, to rental revenue.

Debt. We estimate the fair value of debt based on contractual future cash flows discounted using borrowing spreads and market interest rates that would be available to us for the issuance of debt with similar terms and remaining maturities. In the case of publicly traded debt, we estimate the fair value based on available market data. Any discount or premium to the principal amount is included in the carrying value and amortized to interest expense over the remaining term of the related debt using the effective interest method.

Noncontrolling Interests. We estimate the portion of the fair value of the net assets owned by third parties based on the fair value of the consolidated net assets, principally real estate properties and debt.

Working Capital. We estimate fair value of other acquired assets and assumed liabilities on the best information available.

Fair Value Measurements

Fair Value Measurements. The objective of fair value is to determine the price that would be received on the sale of an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date (the exit price). We estimate fair value using available market information and valuation methodologies we believe to be appropriate for these purposes. Considerable judgment and a high degree of subjectivity are involved in developing these estimates and, accordingly, they are not necessarily indicative of amounts that we would realize on disposition. The fair value hierarchy consists of three broad levels:

·	Level 1 — Quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the entity can access at the measurement date.

·	Level 2 — Inputs other than quoted prices included within Level 1 that are observable for the asset or liability, either directly or indirectly.

·	Level 3 — Unobservable inputs for the asset or liability.

Recurring Fair Value Measurements. We estimate the fair value of our financial instruments using available market information and valuation methodologies we believe to be appropriate for these purposes as follows:

Debt. We estimate the fair value of our senior notes and exchangeable senior notes for disclosure purposes based on quoted market prices for the same (Level 1) or similar (Level 2) issues when current quoted market prices are available. We estimate the fair value of our credit facilities, term loans, secured mortgage debt and assessment bonds by discounting the future cash flows using rates and borrowing spreads currently available to us (Level 3).

Derivatives. We determine the fair value of our derivative instruments using widely accepted valuation techniques including discounted cash flow analysis on the expected cash flows of each derivative. This analysis reflects the contractual terms of the derivatives, including the period to maturity, and uses observable market-based inputs, including interest rate curves, foreign exchange rates, and implied volatilities. We determine the fair values of our interest rate swaps using the market standard methodology of netting the discounted future fixed cash receipts or payments and the discounted expected variable cash payments. We base the variable cash payments on an expectation of future interest rates, or forward curves, derived from observable market interest rate curves. We base the fair values of our net investment hedges on the change in the spot rate at the end of the period as compared with the strike price at inception.

We incorporate credit valuation adjustments to appropriately reflect both our nonperformance risk and the respective counterparty’s nonperformance risk in the fair value measurements. In adjusting the fair value of our derivative contracts for the effect of nonperformance risk, we consider the impact of netting and any applicable credit enhancements, such as collateral postings, thresholds, mutual puts and guarantees.

We have determined that the majority of the inputs used to value our derivatives fall within Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy. Although the credit valuation adjustments associated with our derivatives utilize Level 3 inputs, such as estimates of current credit spreads to evaluate the likelihood of default by us and our counterparties, we assess the significance of the impact of the credit valuation adjustments on the overall valuation of our derivative positions and have determined that the credit valuation adjustments are not significant to the overall valuation of our derivatives.

Nonrecurring Fair Value Measurements. Assets measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis generally consist of real estate assets and investments in and advances to unconsolidated entities that were subject to impairment charges related to our change of intent to sell the investments and through our recoverability analysis discussed below. We estimate fair value based on expected sales prices in the market (Level 2).

Long-Lived Assets

Long-Lived Assets.

Real Estate Assets. Real estate assets are carried at depreciated cost. We capitalize costs incurred in developing, renovating, rehabilitating and improving real estate assets as part of the investment basis of real estate assets. We expense costs for repairs and maintenance of the real estate assets as incurred.

During the land development and construction periods of qualifying projects, we capitalize interest costs, insurance, real estate taxes and general and administrative costs of the personnel performing the development, renovation, and rehabilitation; if such costs are incremental and identifiable to a specific activity to ready the asset for its intended use. We capitalize transaction costs relates to the acquisition of land for future development. We capitalize costs incurred to successfully originate a lease that result directly from and are essential to acquire that lease, including internal costs that are incremental and identifiable as leasing activities. Leasing costs that meet the requirements for capitalization are presented as a component of Other Assets.

We charge the depreciable portions of real estate assets to depreciation expense on a straight-line basis over the respective estimated useful lives. Depreciation commences when the asset is ready for its intended use, which we define as the earlier of stabilization (90% occupied) or one year after completion of construction. We generally use the following useful lives: 5 to 7 years for capital improvements, 10 years for standard tenant improvements, 25 years for depreciable land improvements, 30 years for operating properties acquired and 40 years for operating properties we develop. We depreciate building improvements on land parcels subject to ground leases over the shorter of the estimated building improvement life or the contractual term of the underlying ground lease. Capitalized leasing costs are amortized over the estimated remaining lease term. Our weighted average lease term based on square feet for all leases, in effect at December 31, 2015, was six years.

We assess the carrying values of our respective long-lived assets, whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amounts of these assets may not be fully recoverable. We measure the recoverability of the real estate asset by comparison of the carrying amount of the asset to the estimated future undiscounted cash flows. If our analysis indicates that the carrying value of the real estate property that we expect to hold is not recoverable on an undiscounted cash flow basis, we recognize an impairment charge for the amount by which the carrying value exceeds the current estimated fair value of the real estate property.

We estimate the future undiscounted cash flows based on our intent as follows:

for real estate properties that we intend to hold long-term; including land held for development, properties currently under development and operating buildings; recoverability is assessed based on the estimated undiscounted future net rental income from operating the property and the terminal value, including anticipated costs to develop;

for real estate properties we intend to sell, including properties currently under development and operating buildings; recoverability is assessed based on proceeds from disposition that are estimated based on future net rental income of the property, expected market capitalization rates and anticipated costs to develop;

·	for land parcels we intend to sell, recoverability is assessed based on estimated proceeds from disposition; and

·	for costs incurred related to the potential acquisition of land or development of a real estate property, recoverability is assessed based on the probability that the acquisition or development is likely to occur at the measurement date.

Assets Held for Sale or Contribution

Assets Held for Sale or Contribution. We classify a property as held for sale or contribution when certain criteria are met, in accordance with GAAP. Assets classified as held for sale are expected to be sold to a third party and assets classified as held for contribution are newly developed assets we intend to contribute to our unconsolidated co-investment ventures or to a third party. At such time, the respective assets and liabilities are presented separately in the Consolidated Balance Sheets and depreciation is no longer recognized. Assets held for sale or contribution are reported at the lower of their carrying amount or their estimated fair value less the costs to sell the assets.

Discontinued Operations

Discontinued Operations. Under new accounting guidance issued in 2014, only disposals of a component of an entity, or a group of components of an entity, representing a strategic shift in operations would be presented as discontinued operations. Under this guidance, none of our property dispositions qualified as discontinued operations in 2015 or 2014. However, the results of operations for real estate properties sold in 2013 or held for sale at the end of the year were shown under Discontinued Operations in the Consolidated Statements of Income following the previous accounting standard

Investments in Unconsolidated Entities

Investments in Unconsolidated Entities. We present our investments in certain entities under the equity method. We use the equity method when we have the ability to exercise significant influence over operating and financial policies of the venture but do not have control of the entity. Under the equity method, we initially recognize these investments (including advances) in the balance sheet at our cost, including formation costs and net of deferred gains from the contribution of properties, if applicable. We subsequently adjust the accounts to reflect our proportionate share of net earnings or losses recognized and accumulated other comprehensive income or loss, distributions received, contributions made and certain other adjustments, as appropriate. When circumstances indicate there may have been a reduction in the value of an equity investment, we evaluate whether the loss in value is other than temporary. If we conclude it is other than temporary, we recognize an impairment charge to reflect the equity investment at fair value.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and Cash Equivalents. We consider all cash on hand, demand deposits with financial institutions and short-term highly liquid investments with original maturities of three months or less to be cash equivalents. Our cash and cash equivalents are financial instruments that are exposed to concentrations of credit risk. We invest our cash with high-credit quality institutions. Cash balances may be invested in money market accounts that are not insured. We have not realized any losses in such cash investments or accounts and believe that we are not exposed to any significant credit risk.

Derivative Financial Instruments

Derivative Financial Instruments. We may use derivative financial instruments for the purpose of managing foreign currency exchange rate and interest rate risk. We do not use derivative financial instruments for trading or speculative purposes. All of our derivative financial instruments are customized derivative transactions and are not exchange-traded. Management reviews our hedging program, derivative positions, and overall risk management strategy on a regular basis. We only enter into transactions that we believe will be highly effective at offsetting the underlying risk. Our use of derivatives involves the risk that counterparties may default on a derivative contract. We establish exposure limits for each counterparty to minimize this risk and provide counterparty diversification. Substantially all of our derivative exposures are with counterparties that have long-term credit ratings of single-A or better. We enter into master agreements with counterparties that generally allow for netting of certain exposures; thereby significantly reducing the actual loss that would be incurred should a counterparty fail to perform its contractual obligations. To mitigate pre-settlement risk, minimum credit standards become more stringent as the duration of the derivative financial instrument increases. On the basis of these factors, we consider the risk of counterparty default to be minimal.

We recognize all derivatives at fair value within the line items Other Assets or Other Liabilities, as applicable. We do not net our derivative position by counterparty for purposes of balance sheet presentation and disclosure. Derivatives can be designated as fair value hedges, cash flow hedges or hedges of net investments in foreign operations. The accounting for gains and losses that result from changes in the fair values of derivative instruments depends on whether the derivatives are designated as, and qualify as, hedging instruments. For derivatives that will be accounted for as hedging instruments, at inception of the transaction, we formally designate and document the financial instrument as a hedge of a specific underlying exposure, the risk management objective and the strategy for undertaking the hedge transaction. In addition, we formally assess both at inception and at least quarterly thereafter, the effectiveness of our hedging transactions. The ineffective portion of a derivative financial instrument's change in fair value, if any, is immediately recognized in earnings. We also use derivatives that are not designated as hedges (and may not meet the hedge accounting requirements) to manage our exposure to foreign currency fluctuations. Changes in the fair value of derivatives that are designated and qualify as cash flow hedges and hedges of net investments in foreign operations are recorded in AOCI. Due to the high degree of effectiveness between the hedging instruments and the underlying exposures hedged, fluctuations in the value of the derivative instruments will generally be offset by changes in the fair values or cash flows of the underlying exposures being hedged. The changes in fair values of derivatives that were not designated or did not qualify as hedging instruments are immediately recognized in earnings. For cash flow hedges, we reclassify changes in the fair value of derivatives into the applicable line item in the Consolidated Statements of Income in which the hedged items are recorded in the same period that the underlying hedged items affect earnings.

Foreign Currency. We primarily manage our foreign currency exposure by borrowing in the currencies in which we invest. In certain circumstances, we may issue debt in a currency that is not the same functional currency of the borrowing entity to offset the translation and economic exposures related to our net investment in international subsidiaries. To mitigate the impact of the translation from the fluctuations in exchange rates, we may designate the debt as a nonderivative financial instrument hedge. We also hedge our investments in certain international subsidiaries using foreign currency derivative contracts (net investment hedges) to offset the translation and economic exposures related to our investments in these subsidiaries by locking in a forward exchange rate at the inception of the hedge. To the extent we have an effective hedging relationship, we report all changes in fair value of the hedged portion of the nonderivative financial instruments and net investment hedges in equity in the foreign currency translation component of AOCI. These amounts offset the translation adjustments on the underlying net assets of our foreign investments, which we also record in AOCI. The changes in fair value of the portion of the nonderivative financial instruments that are not designated as hedges are recorded directly in earnings within the line item Foreign Currency and Derivative Gains (Losses) and Related Amortization, Net in the Consolidated Statements of Income. We recognize ineffectiveness, if any, in earnings at the time the ineffectiveness occurred.

We may use foreign currency option contracts, including puts, calls and collars to mitigate foreign currency exchange rate risk associated with the translation of our projected net operating income of our international subsidiaries, principally in Canada, Europe and Japan. Put option contracts provide us with the option to exchange foreign currency for U.S. dollars at a fixed exchange rate if the foreign currency were to depreciate against the U.S. dollar. Call option contracts create an obligation to exchange foreign currency for U.S. dollars at a fixed exchange rate if the foreign currency were to appreciate against the U.S. dollar. Collar option contracts combine the put and call options into one contract to effectively lock in a range around the rate at which net operating income of our subsidiaries will be translated into U.S. dollars. Foreign currency option contracts are not designated as hedges as they do not meet hedge accounting requirements. Changes in the fair value of non-hedge designated derivatives are recorded directly in earnings within the line item Foreign Currency and Derivative Gains (Losses) and Related Amortization, Net.

We may also use foreign currency forwards designed as cash flow hedges to mitigate foreign currency exchange rate risk associated with payments in a currency that is not the functional currency of our foreign subsidiaries. To the extent we have an effective hedging relationship, we report all changes in fair value of the hedged portion of the foreign currency forwards cash flow hedges in AOCI. We recognize ineffectiveness, if any, in earnings at the time the ineffectiveness occurred.

Interest Rate. Our interest rate risk management strategy is to limit the impact of future interest rate changes on earnings and cash flows as well as to stabilize interest expense and manage our exposure to interest rate movements. We primarily accomplish this by issuing fixed rate debt with staggering maturities. We may enter into interest rate swap agreements, which allow us to borrow on a fixed rate basis for longer-term debt issuances, or interest rate cap agreements, which allow us to minimize the impact of increases in interest rates. We typically designate our interest rate swap and interest rate cap agreements as cash flow hedges as these derivative instruments may be used to manage the interest rate risk on potential future debt issuances or to fix the interest rate on variable rate debt issuances. The maximum length of time that we hedge our exposure to future cash flows is typically 10 years or less. We have entered into interest rate swap agreements that allow us to receive variable-rate amounts from a counterparty in exchange for us making fixed-rate payments over the life of our agreements without the exchange of the underlying notional amount.

We report the effective portion of the gain or loss on the derivative as a component of AOCI, and reclassify it to Interest Expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income over the corresponding period of the hedged item. To the extent the hedged debt is paid off early, we write off the remaining balance in AOCI and we recognize the amount in Gains (Losses) on Early Extinguishment of Debt, Net in the Consolidated Statements of Income. We recognize losses on a derivative representing hedge ineffectiveness in Interest Expense at the time the ineffectiveness occurred.

Noncontrolling Interests

Noncontrolling Interests. Noncontrolling interests represent the share of consolidated entities owned by third parties. We recognize each noncontrolling holder’s respective share of the estimated fair value of the net assets at the date of formation or acquisition. Noncontrolling interests are subsequently adjusted for the noncontrolling holder’s share of additional contributions, distributions and their share of the net earnings or losses of each respective consolidated entity. We allocate net income to noncontrolling interests based on the weighted-average ownership interest during the period. The net income that is not attributable to us is reflected in the line item Less Net Earnings Attributable to Noncontrolling Interests. We do not recognize a gain or loss on transactions with a consolidated entity in which we do not own 100% of the equity, but we reflect the difference in cash received or paid from the noncontrolling interests carrying amount as paid-in-capital.

Certain limited partnership interests are exchangeable into our common stock. Common stock issued upon exchange of a holder’s noncontrolling interest is accounted for at the carrying value of the surrendered limited partnership interest.

Costs of Raising Capital

Costs of Raising Capital. We treat costs incurred in connection with the issuance of common and preferred stock as a reduction to additional paid-in capital. We capitalize costs incurred in connection with the issuance of debt, other than our credit facilities, as a direct deduction of Debt and amortize those costs to interest expense over the term of the related debt. We capitalize costs related to our credit facilities, as defined in Note 9, in Other Assets. Costs associated with debt modifications are expensed when incurred.

Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss)

AOCI. For the Parent, we include AOCI as a separate component of stockholders' equity in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. For the Operating Partnership, AOCI is included in partners’ capital in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Any reference to AOCI in this document is referring to the component of stockholders’ equity for the Parent and partners’ capital for the Operating Partnership.

Revenue Recognition

Revenue Recognition.

Rental Revenue. We lease our operating properties to customers under agreements that are classified as operating leases. We recognize the total minimum lease payments provided for under the leases on a straight-line basis over the lease term. Generally, under the terms of our leases, the majority of our rental expenses are recovered from our customers. We reflect amounts recovered from customers as revenue in the period that the applicable expenses are incurred. We make a provision for possible loss if the collection of a receivable balance is considered doubtful.

Strategic Capital Revenue. Strategic capital revenue includes revenue we earn from the management services we provide to unconsolidated entities. These fees are determined in accordance with the terms specific to each arrangement and may include property and asset management fees or transactional fees for leasing, acquisition, development, construction, financing, legal and tax services provided. We may also earn incentive returns (called “promotes”) based on third-party investor returns over time, which may be during the duration of the venture or at the time of liquidation. We recognize fees when they are earned, fixed and determinable. We report these fees in Strategic Capital Revenue. The fees we earn to develop properties within these ventures are reflected in Development Management and Other Revenue on a percentage of completion basis.

We also earned fees from ventures that we consolidate. Upon consolidation these fees were eliminated from our earnings and the third party share of these fees were recognized as a reduction of Net Earnings Attributable to Noncontrolling Interests.

Gains (Losses) on Dispositions of Investments in Real Estate. We recognize gains on the disposition of real estate when the recognition criteria have been met, generally at the time the risks and rewards and title have transferred and we no longer have substantial continuing involvement with the real estate sold. We recognize losses from the disposition of real estate when known.

When we contribute a property to an unconsolidated entity in which we have an ownership interest, we do not recognize a portion of the gain realized. The amount of gain not recognized, based on our ownership interest in the entity acquiring the property, is deferred by recognizing a reduction to our investment in the applicable unconsolidated entity. We adjust our proportionate share of net earnings or losses recognized in future periods to reflect the entities’ recorded depreciation expense as if it were computed on our lower basis in the contributed properties rather than on the entity’s basis.

When a property that we originally contributed to an unconsolidated entity is disposed of to a third party, we recognize the amount of the gain we previously deferred, along with our proportionate share of the gain recognized by the unconsolidated entity. If our ownership interest in an unconsolidated entity decreases and the decrease is expected to be permanent, we recognize the amounts relating to previously deferred gains to coincide with our new ownership interest.

Rental Expense

Rental Expenses. Rental expenses primarily include the cost of our property management personnel, utilities, repairs and maintenance, property insurance and real estate taxes.

Strategic Capital Expenses

Strategic Capital Expenses. Strategic capital expenses generally include the direct expenses associated with the asset management of the unconsolidated co-investment ventures provided by our employees who are assigned to our Strategic Capital segment. In addition, in order to achieve efficiencies and economies of scale, all of our property management functions are provided by property management personnel who are assigned to our Real Estate Operations segment. These individuals perform the property-level management of the properties in our owned and managed portfolio, which include properties we consolidate and those we manage that are owned by the unconsolidated co-investment ventures. We allocate the costs of our property management to the properties we consolidate (included in Rental Expenses) and the properties owned by the unconsolidated co-investment ventures (included in Strategic Capital Expenses) by using the square feet owned by the respective portfolios.

Equity-Based Compensation

Equity-Based Compensation. We account for equity-based compensation by measuring the cost of employee services received in exchange for an award of an equity instrument based on the fair value of the award on the grant date. We recognize the cost of the award on a straight-line basis over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the award, generally the vesting period.

Income Taxes

Income Taxes. Under the Internal Revenue Code, REITs are generally not required to pay federal income taxes if they distribute 100% of their taxable income and meet certain income, asset and stockholder tests. If we fail to qualify as a REIT in any taxable year, we will be subject to federal income taxes at regular corporate rates (including any alternative minimum tax) and may not be able to qualify as a REIT for the four subsequent taxable years. Even as a REIT, we may be subject to certain state and local taxes on our own income and property, and to federal income and excise taxes on our undistributed taxable income.

We have elected taxable REIT subsidiary (“TRS”) status for some of our consolidated subsidiaries. This allows us to provide services that would otherwise be considered impermissible for REITs. Many of the foreign countries in which we have operations do not recognize REITs or do not accord REIT status under their respective tax laws to our entities that operate in their jurisdiction. In the United States, we are taxed in certain states in which we operate. Accordingly, we recognize income tax expense for the federal and state income taxes incurred by our TRSs, taxes incurred in certain states and foreign jurisdictions, and interest and penalties associated with our unrecognized tax benefit liabilities.

We evaluate tax positions taken in the Consolidated Financial Statements under the interpretation for accounting for uncertainty in income taxes. As a result of this evaluation, we may recognize a tax benefit from an uncertain tax position only if it is more likely than not that the tax position will be sustained on examination by taxing authorities.

We recognize deferred income taxes in certain taxable entities. For federal income tax purposes, certain acquisitions have been treated as tax-free transactions resulting in a carry-over basis in assets and liabilities. For financial reporting purposes and in accordance with purchase accounting, we record all of the acquired assets and assumed liabilities at the estimated fair value at the date of acquisition. For our taxable subsidiaries, including certain international jurisdictions, we recognize the deferred income tax liabilities that represent the tax effect of the difference between the tax basis carried over and the fair value of the tangible and intangible assets at the date of acquisition. Any subsequent increases or decreases to the deferred income tax liability recorded in connection with these acquisitions, related to tax uncertainties acquired, are reflected in earnings.

Deferred income tax expense is generally a function of the period’s temporary differences (items that are treated differently for tax purposes than for financial reporting purposes) and the utilization of tax net operating losses (“NOL”) generated in prior years that had been previously recognized as deferred income tax assets. We provide for a valuation allowance for deferred income tax assets if we believe all or some portion of the deferred income tax asset may not be realized. Any increase or decrease in the valuation allowance that results from a change in circumstances that causes a change in the estimated ability to realize the related deferred income tax asset is included in deferred tax expense.

Environmental Costs

Environmental Costs. We incur certain environmental remediation costs, including cleanup costs, consulting fees for environmental studies and investigations, monitoring costs, and legal costs relating to cleanup, litigation defense, and the pursuit of responsible third parties. We expense costs incurred in connection with operating properties and properties previously sold. We capitalize costs related to undeveloped land as development costs and include any expected future environmental liabilities at the time of acquisition. We include costs incurred for properties to be disposed in the cost of the properties upon disposition. We maintain a liability for the estimated costs of environmental remediation expected to be incurred in connection with undeveloped land, operating properties and properties previously sold that we adjust as appropriate as information becomes available.

New Accounting Pronouncements

New Accounting Pronouncements. In September 2015, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued an accounting standard update that amends the retroactive requirement to apply adjustments made to provisional amounts recognized in a business combination. The update requires that the acquirer record, in the same period’s financial statements, the effect on earnings of changes in depreciation, amortization, or other income effects, if any, as a result of the change to the provisional amounts, calculated as if the accounting had been completed at the acquisition date. We early adopted this standard at September 30, 2015, including business combinations with open measurement periods for which the accounting had not been finalized at September 30, 2015. The adoption of this standard did not have a material impact on the Consolidated Financial Statements.

In April 2015, the FASB issued an accounting standard update that requires the presentation of debt issuance costs in the balance sheet as a deduction from the carrying amount of the related debt liability instead of a deferred charge. It is effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, but early adoption is permitted. We early adopted this standard at December 31, 2015, and applied its provisions retrospectively. The adoption resulted in the reclassification of $52.3 million and $43.2 million of unamortized debt issuance costs from Other Assets to Debt at December 31, 2015 and December 31, 2014, respectively.

In February 2015, the FASB issued an accounting standard update that amends the consolidation requirements in existing GAAP. Under the update, all entities, including limited partnerships and similar legal entities, are now within the scope of consolidation guidance, unless a scope exception applies. The presumption that a general partner controls a limited partnership has been eliminated. In addition, fees paid to decision makers that meet certain conditions no longer cause the decision makers to consolidate variable interest entities (“VIEs”). It is effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, but early adoption is permitted and allows for either a full retrospective or a modified retrospective adoption approach. We plan to adopt the standard on its required effective date of January 1, 2016. We are finalizing our analysis, but we do not expect the adoption to have a material effect on our Consolidated Financial Statements.

In May 2014, the FASB issued an accounting standard update that requires companies to use a five step model to determine when to recognize revenue from customer contracts in an effort to increase consistency and comparability throughout global capital markets and across industries. Under the model, a company will identify the contract, identify any separate performance obligations in the contract, determine the transaction price, allocate the transaction price and recognize revenue when the performance obligation is satisfied. In July 2015, the FASB deferred the effective date by one year to annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017. The FASB also permits early adoption of the standard, but not before the original effective date of December 15, 2016. We are currently evaluating the impact the adoption of this standard will have on the Consolidated Financial Statements.