4. Contracts in Process

The components of contracts in process are presented in the table below. The unbilled contract receivables, inventoried contract costs and unliquidated progress payments principally relate to contracts with the U.S. Government and prime contractors or subcontractors of the U.S. Government. In connection with contracts in process assumed by the Company in its business acquisitions, the underlying contractual customer relationships are separately recognized as identifiable intangible assets at the date of acquisition, and are discussed and presented in Note 6.


	December 31,
	2015		2014
	(in millions)
Unbilled contract receivables, gross	$	2,097	$	2,149
Unliquidated progress payments		(869)		(887)

Unbilled contract receivables, net		1,228		1,262

Inventoried contract costs, gross		975		981
Unliquidated progress payments		(122)		(95)

Inventoried contract costs, net		853		886

Total contracts in process	$	2,081	$	2,148

Unbilled Contract Receivables. Unbilled contract receivables represent accumulated incurred costs and earned profits on contracts (revenue arrangements), which have been recorded as sales, but have not yet been billed to customers. Unbilled contract receivables arise from the cost-to-cost method of revenue recognition that is used to record sales on certain fixed-price contracts. Unbilled contract receivables from fixed-price type contracts are converted to billed receivables when amounts are invoiced to customers according to contractual billing terms, which generally occur when deliveries or other performance milestones are completed. Unbilled contract receivables also arise from cost-plus type contracts, time-and-material type contracts and fixed-price service type contracts for revenue amounts that have not been billed by the end of the accounting period due to the timing of preparation of invoices to customers. The Company believes that approximately 92% of the unbilled contract receivables, net at December 31, 2015 will be billed and collected within one year.

Unliquidated Progress Payments. Unliquidated progress payments arise from fixed-price type contracts with the U.S. Government that contain progress payment clauses, and represent progress payments on invoices that have been collected in cash, but have not yet been liquidated. Progress payment invoices are billed to the customer as contract costs are incurred at an amount generally equal to 75% to 80% of incurred costs. Unliquidated progress payments are liquidated as deliveries or other contract performance milestones are completed, at an amount equal to a percentage of the contract sales price for the items delivered or work performed, based on a contractual liquidation rate. Therefore, unliquidated progress payments are a contra asset account, and are classified against unbilled contract receivables if revenue for the underlying contract is recorded using the cost-to-cost method, and against inventoried contract costs if revenue is recorded using the units-of-delivery method.

Inventoried Contract Costs. In accordance with contract accounting standards, the Company’s U.S. Government contractor businesses account for the portion of their G&A, IRAD and B&P costs that are allowable and reimbursable indirect contract costs under U.S. Government procurement regulations on their U.S. Government contracts (revenue arrangements) as inventoried contract costs. G&A, IRAD and B&P costs are allocated to contracts for which the U.S. Government is the end customer and are charged to costs of sales when sales on the related contracts are recognized. The Company’s U.S. Government contractor businesses record the unallowable portion of their G&A, IRAD and B&P costs to expense as incurred, and do not include them in inventoried contract costs.

The table below presents a summary of G&A, IRAD and B&P costs included in inventoried contract costs and the changes to them, including amounts charged to cost of sales by the Company’s U.S. Government contractor businesses for the periods presented.


	Year Ended December 31,
	2015		2014		2013
	(in millions)
Amounts included in inventoried contract costs at beginning of the year	$	135	$	133	$	104
Contract costs incurred:
IRAD and B&P		280		266		279
Other G&A		812		805		817

Total		1,092		1,071		1,096

Amounts charged to cost of sales		(1,065)		(1,069)		(1,067)

Amounts included in inventoried contract costs at end of the year	$	162	$	135	$	133

The table below presents a summary of selling, general and administrative expenses and research and development expenses for the Company’s commercial businesses, which are expensed as incurred and included in cost of sales on the Consolidated Statements of Operations.


	Year Ended December 31,
	2015		2014		2013
	(in millions)
Selling, general and administrative expenses	$	259	$	295	$	310
Research and development expenses		56		67		76

Total	$	315	$	362	$	386