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RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2018
Restructuring and Related Activities [Abstract]  
RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES
RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES

Invigorate Program

The Company is committed to a program called Invigorate which is designed to reduce its cost structure and improve performance. Invigorate consists of several flagship programs, with structured plans in each, to drive savings and improve performance across the customer value chain. These flagship programs include: organization excellence; information technology excellence; procurement excellence; service excellence; lab excellence; and billing excellence. In addition to these programs, the Company identified key themes to change how it operates including reducing denials and patient concessions; further digitizing the business; standardization and automation; and optimization initiatives in the areas of lab network and patient service center network. The Invigorate program is intended to partially offset reimbursement pressures and labor and benefit cost increases; free up additional resources to invest in science, innovation and other growth initiatives; and enable the Company to improve service quality and operating profitability.

Restructuring Charges

The following table provides a summary of the Company's pre-tax restructuring charges for the years ended December 31, 2018, 2017 and 2016:
 
2018
 
2017
 
2016
 
 
 
 
 
 
Employee separation costs
$
45

 
$
29

 
$
9

Facility-related costs
4

 
1

 
2

Asset impairment charges
2

 
3

 
—

Total restructuring charges
$
51

 
$
33

 
$
11



The restructuring charges incurred for the years ended December 31, 2018, 2017 and 2016 were primarily associated with various workforce reduction initiatives as the Company continued to simplify and restructure its organization. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2018, $22 million and $29 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2017, $11 million and $22 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2016, $6 million and $5 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

Charges for all periods presented were primarily recorded in the Company's DIS business.

The following table summarizes the activity of the restructuring liability as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, which is included in accrued expenses in Note 13:

 
Employee Separation Costs
 
Facility-Related Costs
 
Total
 
 
 
 
 
 
Balance, December 31, 2016
$
6

 
$
3

 
$
9

Income statement expense
29

 
1

 
30

Cash payments
(14
)
 
(3
)
 
(17
)
Balance, December 31, 2017
21

 
1

 
22

Income statement expense
45

 
4

 
49

Cash payments
(29
)
 
(4
)
 
(33
)
Balance, December 31, 2018
$
37

 
$
1

 
$
38