RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES

Invigorate Program

During 2012, the Company committed to a course of action related to a multi-year program called Invigorate which is designed to reduce its cost structure. Invigorate has consisted of several flagship programs, with structured plans in each, to drive savings and improve performance across the customer value chain. These flagship programs include: organization excellence; information technology excellence; procurement excellence; service excellence; lab excellence; and billing excellence. From 2012 through 2014, the Invigorate program was intended to partially offset reimbursement pressures and labor and benefit cost increases; free up additional resources to invest in science, innovation and other growth initiatives; and enable us to improve service quality and operating profitability.

In January 2015, the Company adopted a program to further reduce its cost structure through 2017. This multi-year program continues to focus on the flagship program themes and additional key themes such as: standardizing processes, information technology systems, equipment and data; enhancing electronic enabling services; and enhancing reimbursement for work performed.

Restructuring Charges

The following table provides a summary of the Company's pre-tax restructuring charges for the three and six months ended June 30, 2017 and 2016:



	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Employee separation costs	$	2	$	3	$	5	$	6
Facility-related costs	1		—		1		—
Total restructuring charges	$	3	$	3	$	6	$	6

The restructuring charges incurred for the three and six months ended June 30, 2017 were primarily associated with various workforce reduction initiatives as the Company continues to simplify and restructure its organization. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the three months ended June 30, 2017, $2 million and $1 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the six months ended June 30, 2017, $4 million and $2 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

The restructuring charges incurred for the three and six months ended June 30, 2016 were primarily associated with various workforce reduction initiatives as the Company continued to simplify and restructure its organization. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the three months ended June 30, 2016, $2 million and $1 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the six months ended June 30, 2016, $3 million and $3 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

Charges for all periods presented were primarily recorded in the Company's DIS business.

The restructuring liability as of June 30, 2017 and December 31, 2016, which is included in accounts payable and accrued expenses, was $7 million and $9 million, respectively.