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Brief summary of proof-‐of-‐concept clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy of HydroMax™ adjunct to a

carbohydrate-‐electrolyte solution in healthy subjects with dehydration/thermoregulatory stress during

exercise

Objective: To assess the effects of HydroMax™ on biomarkers of hydration status, total body water and

intracellular fluid status, and subjective ratings of exertion when added to a standard CHO/Electrolyte

solution under exercise conditions of dehydration/ thermoregulatory stress.

Study Design:

•

Randomized, single-‐blinded, crossover trial in healthy, recreationally active adults: N=3 (1 female/ 2 males);

three total visits to lab ([1] screen/baseline assessment; [2] Trial A/B; [3] Trial B/A)

•

(A) 12 fl. oz (354 mL) of carbohydrate-electrolyte solution vs. (B) 12 fl. oz carbohydrate-electrolyte solution +

2.4g HydroMax™ consumed prior to 60min bicycle ergometer

exercise stress test

•

Baseline measurements, before and after the 60 min cycle ergometer for various biomarkers of hydration/

fluid balance status

•

60min exercise bout on cycle ergometer at HR equiv to 65% VO2 max; RPE measured at the 30min (mid-‐point

of exercise bout) and 60min mark (during last minute of exercise bout)

Primary Objective:

•

Dependent Variables at Visits 2 and 3: Nude Bodyweight; Usg, Uosm, Ucr, Usodium, Plasma Hgb/Hct,

Plasma Osm, Plasma Cr, Plasma sodium (Chem panel + Hgb/Hct + Plasma Osm); BIA for TBW, ICF & ECF; RPE

(pre, 30min into exercise stress, immediately post-‐exercise)

Comments on Preliminary Pilot Data:

•

In general, notable findings for the carbohydrate-electrolyte solution + HydroMax™ trial were: 1) less

decrease in nude body weight; 2) less loss of total body water (TBW, in fact it increased slightly during

the trial); lower rating of perceived exertion (RPE); and 4) less of a decrease in plasma volume (as measured

by changes in hematocrit, HCT).

•

Given the use of a well-‐established, effective carbohydrate/electrolyte rehydration solution as the

comparator, these subtle, yet consistent differences demonstrating the potential superiority of the

carbohydrate-electrolyte solution + low dose HydroMax™ appear very promising.

•

These preliminary data suggests (within the confines and limitations of this small pilot) there is credence

to the hypothesis that HydroMax is providing additive hydration, thermoregulatory support beyond a

leading 6% carb/electrolyte solution under exercise conditions with exercise stress in healthy adults.

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Table 1: Data represent the average % change from baseline (pre-‐exercise) during the Carbohydrate-Electrolyte

Solution trial vs. the Carbohydrate-Electrolyte Solution plus HydroMax™ trial. Each subject served as their own

control.

HydroMax™ Glycerol Powder 65%

Background

Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule that acts as an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid

metabolism. It occurs naturally in the human body both as a component of triacylglycerol (triglyceride),

the storage form of fat, as well as in free form in body fluids. When glycerol is ingested, it is absorbed

and distributed over the extracellular space and (as such) increases the concentration (i.e., osmolarity or

tonicity) of the fluid in the blood and tissues. The concentration of these fluids is held constant by the

body, so water consumed with the glycerol is not excreted until the extra glycerol is either removed by

the kidneys or broken down by the body (Freund et al., 1995). This increase in osmolarity of the plasma

results in the expansion and maintenance of fluid volume (i.e., hyperhydration) within the tissue

compartment in which glycerol is concentrated. It is this quality that makes glycerol unique in sports

nutrition as it has applications for endurance (Riedesel et al, 1987) as well as body building/physique,

strength-power athletes.

History of Clinical Use

The use of glycerol administration in various clinical settings dates back to the 1970s using

intravenous systemic or oral delivery (Nahata et al., 1981). It has been used to treat cerebral edema

(swelling of the brain) and severe glaucoma (pressure within the eye) to relieve intra-cerebral and intra-

ocular pressure, respectively. As glycerol does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier, it helps to

osmotically remove excess fluid from these compartments to bring balance and reestablish

homeostasis. Glycerol administration has been used to improve cerebral blood flow and reliably

decrease intra-cerebral pressure with the advantage of avoiding a rebound phenomenon that is often

observed with other osmotic agents such as mannitol. It is also used to improve rehydration during

acute gastrointestinal distress and as a demulcent and humectant for cough elixirs. It is used topically as

a lubricating humectant for its organoleptic properties in skin and hair care products. For clinical use,

doses are usually delivered in a 10% solution providing 25 to 120 grams, or 0.5 to 1.5 grams/kilogram

bodyweight up to every 6 hours (Nahata et al., 1981; Katzman et al., 1977; Frank et al., 1981).

Glycerol’s tolerability, efficacy, low-cost, availability, safety and lack of toxicity with large doses have

contributed to its usefulness in a variety of clinical settings.

Efficacy and Ergogenic Potential

It is precisely this increase in osmolarity that results in an expansion of the fluid compartment of

blood plasma. As such, this characteristic of glycerol lends itself to potential benefits for multiple

athletic / fitness qualities: from endurance and stamina events, to environmental heat/humidity stress,

to increasing the hyperemic response and fluid shifting associated with resistance training. Glycerol use

has been consistently shown to increase positive net fluid balance in multiple studies using subjects at

different levels of fitness. Performance benefits reported with glycerol pre-hydration vs. water have

ranged from 22% to 32% increases in time to exhaustion while cycling at 60% VO2 max (Lyons et al.,

1990; Montner et al., 1996; Koenigsberg et al., 1995). In addition, glycerol supplementation has been

shown to decrease the core temperature and heart rate in exercising individuals, suggesting improved

efficiency of exercise and thermoregulation and decreased physiologic stress as a result of plasma and

intracellular fluid preservation (Inder et al., 1998; Nelson et al., 2007).

Glycerol has also been utilized in conjunction with other sports nutrition dietary ingredients

such as creatine, carbohydrates, glutamine, alpha-lipoic acid, and taurine to further enhance the total

body water retention benefits of these other bioactive compounds. For example, combining glycerol

with creatine supplementation may reduce thermal and cardiovascular strain during exercise in well-

trained runners when compared to creatine alone, without decreasing running economy or performance

and despite increases in body mass and total body water (Beis et al., 2011; Polyviou et al., 2012).

Physiochemical properties and Pharmacology

Glycerol is one of the most common sugar alcohols and biochemical compounds found in human

metabolism. It has molecular weight of 92.09 daltons with a formula of C₃H₈O₃. It is typically available as

a syrupy liquid with a sweet taste (about 0.6 times as sweet as sucrose). Glycerol is also known as

glycerin, glycerine, glyceritol, glycyl alcohol, trihydroxypropane, propanetriol, osmoglyn, 1,2,3-

trihydroxypropane, and its IUPAC nomenclature is propane-1,2,3-triol.

The structural formula of Glycerol:

[ingredientstudies12.gif] Glycerol is used as a sweetener in syrups, liquor and other foods. For human consumption,

glycerol has been classified as GRAS (generally recognized as safe) by the U.S. FDA among the sugar

alcohols as a macronutrient yielding 4 kilocalories per gram. It is approved in the EU as E422.

The mechanism of action of oral glycerol is related to its ability to increase the osmolarity of any

tissue compartment that it concentrates in. Hence, in combination with water and fluid intake, it has a

“hyperhydration” effect. Following ingestion, glycerol is efficiently absorbed and metabolized from the

lumen of the small intestine. It is also metabolized in the liver to either provide the backbone precursor

for phospholipids/ triglycerides or it is incorporated into glycolysis or gluconeogenesis (depending on

physiologic conditions). The majority of glycerol metabolism occurs via the glycerol-phosphate shuttle

via oxidation to dihyroxyacetone phosphate. As part of the glycerol-phosphate shuttle, glycerol-3-

phosphate provides energetic reducing equivalents as an additional pathway to generate ATP in the

mitochondria from oxidative phosphorylation (Robergs et al, 1998).

The glycerol that is not metabolized in the liver is finally distributed to various tissues

throughout the body, including skeletal muscle. The half-life (t_½) of glycerol is approximately 45-55

minutes, with the majority of elimination by renal filtration, although tubular reabsorption is present for

concentrations up to 0.15 mg/ml (Robergs et al, 1998). Hence, according to first-order elimination

kinetics, glycerol is effectively cleared within 4.5 hours. The oral, acute LD₅₀ is 12600 mg/kg in rats and

4090 mg/kg in mice.

Potential Applications in Sports Nutrition Products

Glycerol in a powdered form is typically utilized in the sports nutrition industry in the form of

glycerol monostearate (GMS). GMS is typically in the range of 3-7% free molecular glycerol when

delivered as a powder, yet sports nutrition product brands tend to include GMS primarily as an

ingredient for providing elemental glycerol in a powdered form for the pre/intra/post workout category.

Glanbia Nutritionals (NA), Inc. can reliably and consistently supply HydroMax™ high-concentrate

powdered glycerol (>65% free molecular glycerol) to be included in ready-to-mix powdered sports

nutrition formulations. Other firms in the dietary ingredient and raw material industry have attempted

to produce high-concentrate glycerol, but have failed due to the extreme hygroscopic nature of glycerin.

HydroMax™ is an industry-first; a potent, stable, highly concentrated form of powdered glycerol that has

favorable organoleptic properties for versatile formulating solutions in sports nutrition category.

Yet another application appropriate to high-yield powdered glycerol stems from its osmotically

active, hyperhydration characteristics. Skeletal muscle produces a significant amount of heat, which

contributes to the raising of the core body temperature during exercise. Although secretion/evaporation

of sweat is the primary mechanism for attenuating this increase in core temperature, it also results in

fluid losses. This total body water loss is exacerbated in hot and/or humid or excessively arid

environments. Given the adverse effects on athletic/exercise performance with a greater than 2%

reduction in total body water, it becomes clear that the high-yield powdered glycerol ingredient is a

potentially novel ingredient for use in conjunction with already accepted hydration/volume repletion

interventions. These methods are of particular interest to endurance athletes, marathoners, ultra-

marathoners, triathletes or any athlete at risk of total body water, volume losses and dehydration.

These athletes would include, but not be limited to: soccer, football, basketball, tennis and any athlete

involved in training and competing under conditions of excess water/ fluid losses (e.g., intense and/or

prolonged activity and hot/humid or arid weather).

We have observed accentuated “pump” responses with traditional resistance training in the 8-

15 repetition max zone when utilized in 500 milligrams to 2 gram doses per serving. When considering

cost : benefit ratio, 2 grams per serving of the 65% high-yield glycerol powder appears to be optimal

when utilized in a multi-ingredient blend. This accentuated response is further optimized by including

the following nutraceuticals in the same finished product ingredient deck: creatine, taurine, agmatine,

“NO enhancing” botanical extracts, dietary nitrates/nitrites, and/or other dietary ingredients typically

utilized in formulating pre-workout/intra-workout (and even post-workout) products to extend the

exercise-induced hyperemic response or time of expanded tissue perfusion.

(This write-up was prepared with inputs from our partner NovaNutra, LLC., NJ)

References

1. Anderson MJ, Cotter JD, Garnham AP, Casley DJ, Febbraio MA: Effect of glycerol-induced

hyperhydration on thermoregulation and metabolism during exercise in heat. Int J Sport Nutr

Exerc Metab 2001, 11:315–333.

2. Beis LY, Polyviou T, Malkova D, Pitsiladis YP. The effects of creatine and glycerol hyperhydration

on running economy in well trained endurance runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011;8(1):24.

3. Easton C, Turner S, Pitsiladis YP. Creatine and glycerol hyperhydration in trained subjects before

exercise in the heat. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007; 17(1):70-91.

4. Frank MS, Nahata MC, Hilty MD. Glycerol: a review of its pharmacology,pharmacokinetics,

adverse reactions, and clinical use. Pharmacotherapy. 1981; 1(2):147-60.

5. Freund, B.J., Montain, S.J., Young, A.J., Sawka, M.N., DeLuca, J.P., Pandolf, K.B., Valeri, C.R.

Glycerol hyperhydration: hormonal, renal, and vascular fluid responses. Journal of Applied

Physiology. 1995; 79:2069-2077.

6. Inder WJ, Swanney MP, Donald RA, et al. The effect of glycerol and desmopressin on exercise

performance and hydration in triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998; 30:1263-1269.

7. Katzman R, Clasen R, Klatzo I, Meyer JS, Pappius HM, Waltz AG. Report of Joint Committee for

Stroke Resources. IV. Brain edema in stroke. Stroke. 1977; 8(4):512-40.

8. Koenigsberg, P.S., Martin, K.K., Hlava, H.R., Riedesel, M.L. Sustained hyperhydration with

glycerol ingestion. Life Sciences. 1995; 5:645-653.

9. Lyons, T.P., Riedesel, M.L., Meuli, L.E., Chick, T.W. Effects of glycerol-induced hyperhydration

prior to exercise in the heat on sweating and core temperature. Medicine and Science in Sports

and Exercise, 1990; 22:477-483.

10. Montner P, Stark DM, Riedesel ML, et al. Pre-exercise glycerol hydration improves cycling

endurance time. Int J Sports Med. 1996; 17:27-33.

11. Nahata MC, Hipple TF. Preparation of glycerol solution for intravenous use. Pharmacotherapy.

1982; 2(3):167.

12. Nelson JL, Robergs RA. Exploring the potential ergogenic effects of glycerol hyperhydration.

Sports Med. 2007; 37(11):981-1000.

13. Polyviou TP, Pitsiladis YP, Lee WC, Pantazis T, Hambly C, Speakman JR, Malkova D.

Thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses to creatine, glycerol and alpha lipoic acid in

trained cyclists. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012; 9(1):29.

14. Riedesel ML, Allen DY, Peake GT, Al-Qattan K: Hyperhydration with glycerol solutions. J Appl

Physiol. 1987; 63:2262-2268.

15. Robergs RA, Griffin SE. Glycerol. Biochemistry, pharmacokinetics and clinical and practical

applications. Sports Med. 1998; 26:145-167.

16. van Rosendal SP, Osborne MA, Fassett RG, Coombes JS: Guidelines for glycerol use in

hyperhydration and rehydration associated with exercise. Sports Med. 2010; 40:113-129.

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2840 Loker Avenue East, Carlsbad, CA 92010

www.glanbianutritionals.com

Palatinose™ and fat oxidation:

Related aspects and science

Annex 1 to Memo 18022m-DCS-AJS

for Horn, US

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Palatinose™

The carbohydrate for sustained energy supply

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Sucrose

Palatinose™

• Early and fast intestinal release

• More steady intestinal release along entire length

• Complete use as energy source

 "Fast energy"

 "Sustained energy"

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Small intestine of 4-5 m length

Sucrose

Palatinose™

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BENEO

Rate of energy supply determines fuel use

Palatinose™ promotes fat burning

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Traditional carbohydrates

Benefits of Palatinose™

Slow and sustained release

 Blood

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Lower blood glucose response

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Less insulin release

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 Carb.

oxidation

Lower carbohydrate oxidation

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 Fat

oxidation

Higher fat oxidation in energy gain

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Note: The benefit of Palatinose™ to promote fat oxidation does not work with fructose because of its different liver metabolism.

Slow and sustained release

- enzyme kinetic data

- incretin response

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Digestion in the small intestine:

Palatinose™ (isomaltulose) is slowly released

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• The rate of hydrolysis is thereby much slower for

Palatinose™ compared to sucrose, deccelerated

by a factor of about 4 to 5.

Hydrolysis of Palatinose™ takes

4-5 times longer compared to

sucrose

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Scheme of hydrolysis of sucrose, starch &

Palatinose™ in the small intestine

• Palatinose™ is hydrolysed at the same

enzyme complex as is involved in the digestion

of sucrose and starch^*

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Rate of hydrolysis – sucrose vs. Palatinose™

• It is digested at the isomaltase site.

from in vitro enzyme kinetic studies

* The amylopectine derived glucose-glucose 1-6 linkage

Rate of Hydrolysis of Palatinose™ (in vitro)

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The speed of hydrolysis of Palatinose™ is typically less than 25% that of sucrose

 “SLOW RELEASE CARBOHYDRATE”

* 5 sugars added in a mixed preparation; all other studies sugars added individually

Incretin response of Palatinose™:

Sustained digestion and absorption along the small intestine

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The incretines GIP and GLP-1 are gut hormones, which

stimulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion

Upper small intestine

GIP

(glucose-dependent

• GIP release from K cells

insulinotropic peptide) Sucrose

• stimulated by monosaccharides

• Palatinose™: GIP 

Palatinose™

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Lower small intestine

GLP-1

• GLP-1 release from L cells

^{(glucagon-like peptide 1)}

Palatinose™

• Palatinose™: GLP-1 

Sucrose

Palatinose™ digestion and absorption occu [ingredientstudies99.gif] rs

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References:

Ang and Linn (2014) Am J Clin Nutr 100:1059–68 (data shown).

Maeda et al 2013 J Diabetes Investig 4 (3) 281-6.

Keyhani-Nejad et al. (2016) Diabetes Care 39(3):e38-e39.

Steady and sustained glucose supply /

low glycemic

- Blood glucose response and insulin data

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Palatinose™ is a low glycaemic carbohydrate

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Blood glucose

Sucrose

100

100

Palatinose^TM

120

-1

Time (m in)

Glucose Sucrose Palatinose™

-2

Insulin

250

²⁰⁰

^Sucrose

 The lower blood glucose response

Palatinose^TM

¹⁵⁰

is associated with a lower insulin release

100

⁵⁰

10 healthy volunteers (18-24 years, BMI 19-24 kg/m²),

120

intake 50g in 250ml water in fasting conditions.

-50

Time (m in)

Sydney University’s Glycaemic Index Research Service (SUGiRS) (2002) Sponsor: BENEO

Regulation (EU) No. 432/2012, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:136:0001:0040:en:PDF

EU Register of nutrition and health claims made on foods, http://ec.europa.eu/nuhclaims/

Low glycaemic properties confirmed

in over 30 human trials with Palatinose™

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Consistent findings with Palatinose™

• LOWER blood glucose response

• LOWER insulin response

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Confirmation in a study population of in total >250 adults, and also children, covering healthy people with normal body

weight or overweight/obese, with normal or impaired glucose tolerance (including type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus).

Higher fat oxidation

- indirect calorimetry data

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Palatinose™ promotes fat burning

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Palatinose™ and its more balanced glucose supply

allows a higher fat oxidation in energy metabolism

than conventional high glycaemic carbohydrates.

Palatinose^TM studies (BENEO)

Further published studies

Effect of Palatinose™ on fat oxidation

confirmed in different populations:

• at rest and during physical activity

• trained endurance athletes and moderately

active people

• normal weight and overweight people

• normal and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)

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Dept. Nutrition Communication / DCS

Phone: +1 973-867-2147

Denisse.Colindres@beneo.com

18022m-DCS-AJS

26.03.2018

Page 1/3

MEMO

Subject

Palatinose™ : Fat Oxidation effect at dosages lower than 25g per intake

occasion

Summary:

Palatinose™ provides the desired carbohydrate energy for physical activity in a more steady way

and at the same time promotes a higher contribution of fat oxidation in energy metabolism

compared to other, commonly “fast” carbohydrates. These effects are attributed to the intrinsic

slow-release property of Palatinose™ that lowers the blood glucose rise and insulin release. In

human intervention studies, the lowest measured dosage that resulted in a fat oxidation benefit via

indirect calorimetry in sports conditions was 25g/ intake and in sedentary conditions was

20g/intake. Nevertheless, the slow-release characteristic of Palatinose™ is intrinsic and present

from the first gram on, thus the physiological effect is expected to be there at dosages lower than

25g per intake. Nevertheless, it is advised that Palatinose™ is present in a significant amount in

the final product.

1. Rationale and related comprehensive research with Palatinose™ showing:

As result of its unique physiological properties, Palatinose™ promotes fat oxidation

Palatinose^TM (generic name: isomaltulose) is a disaccharide-type carbohydrate, made from

sucrose by enzymatic rearrangement. It is a fully available carbohydrate and as such provides the

full carbohydrate energy to the body (i.e. 4 kcal/g), while the different linkage gives Palatinose™

slow release properties, i.e. it is digested more slowly by intestinal enzymes (with a difference in

Vmax by a factor of 4 to 5), and its digestion and absorption occurs along the entire small intestine,

as illustrated by its different incretin response. The resulting more steady and sustained release

of glucose into the body is reflected in the blood glucose response to Palatinose™ and

subsequent metabolic processes, which – in accordance with the lower insulin release – result in

higher fat oxidation rates. In other words: As result of its slower intestinal release, Palatinose™

provides the desired carbohydrate energy for physical activity in a more steady way and at the

same time maintains a higher contribution of fat oxidation in energy metabolism than commonly

used readily available carbohydrates like sucrose or maltodextrin.

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Dept. Nutrition Communication / DCS

Phone: +1 973-867-2147

Denisse.Colindres@beneo.com

18022m-DCS-AJS

26.03.2018

Page 2/3

The physiological properties of Palatinose^TM have been thoroughly studied and established in a

comprehensive body of research covering all relevant aspects outlined above. For more detailed

information, please, see Annex 1.

Indirect calorimetry studies, assessing the effect of Palatinose^TM (isomaltulose) on fuel partitioning

and fat oxidation, amount to as many as 14 human intervention studies by now and cover different

situations including conditions at rest and during physical activity as well as different population

groups such as trained endurance athletes and moderately active people, normal weight and

overweight, with normal or impaired glucose tolerance. All of these studies consistently show that

Palatinose™ (isomaltulose) allows for a higher contribution of fat oxidation – as result of its more

steady release of carbohydrate energy – in comparison with conventional high glycemic

carbohydrates such as maltodextrin or sucrose (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Summary of studies related to Palatinose^TM and fat oxidation

a) Studies with focus on sports and physical activity

Seven studies investigated effects of Palatinose™ on fuel management and fat oxidation in sports-

related conditions. Palatinose™ was commonly consumed as drink before physical activity, often

with additional intake during and/or after the exercise. In all of these studies, the intake of

Palatinose™ was followed by lower blood glucose responses and higher fat oxidation rates,

compared to the readily available high glycaemic carbohydrate reference (e.g. maltodextrin or

sucrose). The lowest dosage tested was 25 g Palatinose™ per intake occasion, with additional

carbohydrate intake during and/or after exercise.

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Dept. Nutrition Communication / DCS

Phone: +1 973-867-2147

Denisse.Colindres@beneo.com

18022m-DCS-AJS

26.03.2018

Page 3/3

b) Studies with focus on weight management

Seven further studies investigated the effects of Palatinose™ in meal-type approaches or drinks on

metabolic response and fat oxidation in healthy or overweight to obese adults with normal or

impaired glucose tolerance in largely sedentary conditions. These studies follow the rationale that

increasing fat oxidation is a beneficial aspect in weight management and body composition.

Higher fat oxidation with Palatinose™ versus the reference carbohydrate was confirmed in all of

these studies. The lowest dosage tested here was 20 g Palatinose™ per intake occasion.

2. Considerations for the fat oxidation effect at dosages lower than 25 g Palatinose™

per intake occasion

As outlined above, the higher fat oxidation benefit of Palatinose™ is a result of its slower and

sustained intestinal release. This is an intrinsic property of Palatinose™ inherent to the

carbohydrate itself¹, and as such relevant for small amounts of Palatinose™ (strictly speaking from

the first Gramm), independent from the dose level.

The effect of Palatinose™ on carbohydrate and fat oxidation in the body’s energy metabolism can

be visualised through indirect calorimetry methodology. Here methodology-based aspect come

into play: I.e. because indirect calorimetry methods show large biological variations, higher intake

levels may be needed to visualise the effect significantly, even though the physiological effect may

occur at lower dosage.

While BENEO’s comprehensive blood glucose response testing showed lower response with

Palatinose™ from intake amounts of 10 g to 15 g and higher, the fat oxidation benefit of

Palatinose™ was tested and demonstrated with indirect calorimetry at dosages of 25 g or more per

intake in sports conditions and 20 g or more per intake in sedentary conditions, as outlined above.

There is reason to assume that it is essentially the same physiological response – from the intrinsic

slow release properties all to the higher fat oxidation benefit – that can be seen in sports conditions

(e.g. drink intake before physical activity) as in sedentary conditions (e.g. consuming a drink or

meal with Palatinose™ for breakfast).

Hence, the fat oxidation benefit of Palatinose™ should be relevant with dosages lower than 25 g

per intake, respectively.

¹ An adaptation of digestive enzymes to regular Palatinose™ consumption over longer time is unlikely.

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